The first step in any extended overland trip in Central Asia is visa planning. There are five "stans" that were part of the former Soviet Union, all requiring visas for U.S. citizens, and entering and exiting the region overland requires further visas (Russia, Iran and/or China, most likely). Worst of all, each visa process has slight quirks that require careful attention, especially in planning your itinerary. We are not going to Kazakhstan, and so this discussion covers the four other "stans"--Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. [For Iran visas, cf. my post of 4.11. We received multiple entry China visas while in Hong Kong (as residents of Hong Kong, this was possible), but Chinese visa policy has since changed (in connection with the Olympics) and we have heard that overlanders are now having some difficulty securing visas for China.] In order of difficulty:
Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan's is by far the trickiest Central Asian visa. The notoriously eccentric republic does not favor tourist visits, and the only way to get a tourist visa is by booking a fully escorted tour, which costs somewhere around $100/day per person. From what I understand, the tour does not allow any independent wandering, except within the city of Ashgabat. Most overlanders, not wanting the expense or the strings, opt instead for a transit visa, which allows independent travel along a specified route through Turkmenistan for a period of usually five days (with the exact dates specified on the visa). We planned on applying for our transit visa based on our Iran and Uzbekistan visas, the overland route between the two countries requiring transit through Turkmenistan. We first inquired with the Turkmen Embassy in Washington, which told us that we could only apply for transit visas in countries bordering Turkmenistan. We're pretty sure this isn't true, but securing a transit visa in Iran ended up being quite straightforward. When we arrived in Iran, we had our tour company deliver to the Turkmen Embassy in Tehran a copy of our passport photo page and Uzbek visa, which the embassy sent to Ashgabat for approval. After ten or so days, we called to confirm that approval for the transit visa had been granted by Ashgabat, and we were told that we could complete the application for and pick up our visas when we were in Tehran. Our first day in Tehran, we went to the Turkmen Embassy with more passport copies, color photographs and U.S. dollars in hand, and were able to pick up our five-day transit visas later the very same day. The only unpleasant surprise was that the Turkmen Embassy in Tehran only gives transit visas with entry at Sarakhs and exit at Farap--fine if you are traveling between Mashhad and Bukhara, with a stop at Mary/Merv, but not permitting travel to Ashgabat, Nisa or Konye-Urgench. We did meet some tourists on the same transit visas who were allowed to detour to Ashgabat by telling the border officials that they needed to go to a bank in the capital.
Tajikistan. Tajikistan used to offer visas on arrival for U.S. citizens at Dushanbe airport, but no longer does. We applied for our Tajik visas and GBAO permits (for travel to the Pamir region) with the Tajik Embassy in Washington, by mail. Service was very prompt and the officer who answered the phone was very helpful and responsive. Despite some reports to the contrary, no letter of invitation was required and paperwork generally was minimal. The unfortunate part, however, was that the visa granted to us is only good for a two-week window (we have to enter and exit Tajikistan within that period), which has required careful planning and put serious constraints on our overall Central Asian route-planning flexibility.
Uzbekistan. Uzbek visas used to be somewhat easier for American citizens when the U.S. and Uzbekistan had better relations (before the Andijon incident). Still, however, we were able to get a tourist visa for Uzbekistan without any letter of invitation. The process was considerably more difficult than the Tajik visa, however, mainly because of the slow speed and lack of responsiveness of the Uzbek New York consulate. The visas ended up taking almost five weeks to process, it was extremely difficult to get someone on the phone, and in the end they required additional payment because the fee went up (to $131, matching U.S. visa fees) after we had applied (but before the visas were issued). Nonetheless, they did grant us a dual-entry, 30-day visa. If you are arriving in Tashkent by air, it's also possible to arrange a visa on arrival with an invitation. STANtours (website, email), is a reliable travel agency with which to arrange any of your Central Asian visa or travel needs.
Kyrgyzstan. We were unable to secure our Kyrgyz visa in the U.S., because the Uzbek process ran out our clock, but we wanted it in hand before arriving in Central Asia, and so applied while we were in Dubai. The officer at the Kyrgyz Consulate in Dubai was incredibly helpful, answering emails promptly and even processing our visa outside of regular hours. Same day service was fairly steep at around $150, but paperwork was minimal, with no invitation requirement and visa validity of a full month.
May 30, 2008
May 28, 2008
Assassins
This is intended as a revision of my post of 4.12.
****
One of our goals on this trip is to connect related places in different countries, and so we visited the Assassin castles of Misyaf in Syria and Alamut in Iran.
Misyaf Castle, near Hama, Syria
Alamut Castle, near Qazvin, Iran
In order to understand the origin of the Assassins, it is helpful to go back to the beginning of Islam. After the death of Mohammed in 632 AD, there arose a dispute as to who should succeed his role as the (religious and political) head of the Islamic world. One faction supported Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, while others supported Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr was elected the first caliph (or successor to Mohammed), followed in relatively quick succession by Umar, Uthman, and then finally Ali. Showing the contentiousness of the power struggles at the time, Umar, Uthman and Ali each met his end by murder. Some blamed the death of Uthman on the Ali faction (now known as Shiites), while the Shiites blamed the death of Ali on the others (now known as Sunnis). Following the death of Ali, the Sunni Umayyad dynasty, based in Damascus, took over the caliphate. During this period, the conflict between the majority Sunnis and the minority Shiites deepened, especially after the Umayyads killed Ali's son Hussein, much of his family and many of his followers, in a battle near Karbala in now Iraq.
While the Shiites have been out of the majority and power in most of the Islamic world since, there have been significant times and areas when they came into control. One of the most important areas was and remains Iran, where (Twelver) Shiites form a majority. [Cf. my post of 5.20 for an introduction to Iranian Shia Islam.] Another was the Cairo-based (Sevener Shia or Ismaili) Fatimid caliphate, named after Fatima, daughter of Mohammed and wife of Ali, which ruled much of North Africa, Egypt and nearby lands from 910-1171. [The Twelver and Sevener Shias had split earlier due to a dispute on the identity of the seventh Imam--post on Sevener Shias likely to come.]
Around 1090, the Fatimids suffered from their own succession problem. The losing faction refused to accept the new Fatimid ruler in Cairo and formed a somewhat radical rebel group in now Iran, known to us as the Assassins. The founder of the Assassins, Hassan Sabbah, established a base at Alamut in northern Iran and led his group into repeated conflict with the prevailing Sunni Muslim hierarchy. A second group of Assassins became established in now Syria, and was particularly active under the leadership of Rashid al-Din Sinan, who based himself at Misyaf Castle starting in 1140. It is believed that there may have been a third group of Assassins in now Iraq.
As you may know, the word "assassin," which we use now to describe professional killers, derives from the Assassins, who are called Assassins because it was rumored that they took hashish before embarking on their missions. And much like the contemporary English meaning of the word and its derivative, assassination, the missions of the Assassins, their method of operation, was murder: the strategic killing or attempted killing of Sunni Muslim leaders, including those of the Seljuk Turks of Anatolia and Crusader-foe Saladin. The Assassins would work by embedding an operative, sometimes over the course of years, in order to murder, or assassinate, a prominent leader or otherwise powerful or influential person.
Saladin's greatest success, prior to his defeat of the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin in 1187, was the conquest of Egypt from the Fatimid caliphate in 1171. After terminating Fatimid rule, Saladin wanted to consolidate his (Sunni) control over the region, including by wiping out the Assassins in now Syria. In 1176, Saladin sieged the castle of Misyaf. According to legend, Saladin woke up one morning during the siege to find on his bed a dagger or poisoned cakes and a threatening note, depending on the story you believe, making clear that the Assassins had infiltrated his camp and could murder him at their will. The siege was called off.
The Assassins of now Iran met their end in 1256, when Hulagu, Genghiz Khan's grandson, sucessfully sieged Alamut [cf. post of 5.27 on Hulagu and the Ilkhanids]. The Syrian branch would persist until 1273, when it was defeated by the Mamlukes.
Ruins of Alamut
Column capital at Misyaf, evidence of earlier fortifications at the site
****
Excerpt from Marco Polo on the Hassan Sabbah and the Fortress of Alamut:
The Old Man was called in their language ALOADIN. He had caused a certain valley between two mountains to be enclosed, and had turned it into a garden, the largest and most beautiful that ever was seen, filled with every variety of fruit. In it were erected pavilions and palaces the most elegant that can be imagined, all covered with gilding and exquisite painting. And there were runnels too, flowing freely with wine and milk and honey and water; and numbers of ladies and of the most beautiful damsels in the world, who could play on all manner of instruments, and sung most sweetly, and danced in a manner that it was charming to behold. For the Old Man desired to make his people believe that this was actually Paradise. So he had fashioned it after the description that Mahommet gave of his Paradise, to wit, that it should be a beautiful garden running with conduits of wine and milk and honey and water, and full of lovely women for the delectation of all its inmates. And sure enough the Saracens of those parts believed that it _was_ Paradise!
Now no man was allowed to enter the Garden save those whom he intended to be his ASHISHIN. There was a Fortress at the entrance to the Garden, strong enough to resist all the world, and there was no other way to get in. He kept at his Court a number of the youths of the country, from 12 to 20 years of age, such as had a taste for soldiering, and to these he used to tell tales about Paradise, just as Mahommet had been wont to do, and they believed in him just as the Saracens believe in Mahommet. Then he would introduce them into his garden, some four, or six, or ten at a time, having first made them drink a certain potion which cast them into a deep sleep, and then causing them to be lifted and carried in. So when they awoke, they found themselves in the Garden.
When therefore they awoke, and found themselves in a place so charming, they deemed that it was Paradise in very truth. And the ladies and damsels dallied with them to their hearts' content, so that they had what young men would have; and with their own good will they never would have quitted the place.
Now this Prince whom we call the Old One kept his Court in grand and noble style, and made those simple hill-folks about him believe firmly that he was a great Prophet. And when he wanted one of his _Ashishin_ to send on any mission, he would cause that potion whereof I spoke to be given to one of the youths in the garden, and then had him carried into his Palace. So
when the young man awoke, he found himself in the Castle, and no longer in that Paradise; whereat he was not over well pleased. He was then conducted to the Old Man's presence, and bowed before him with great veneration as believing himself to be in the presence of a true Prophet. The Prince would then ask whence he came, and he would reply that he came from Paradise! and that it was exactly such as Mahommet had described it in the Law. This of course gave the others who stood by, and who had not been admitted, the greatest desire to enter therein.
So when the Old Man would have any Prince slain, he would say to such a youth: "Go thou and slay So and So; and when thou returnest my Angels shall bear thee into Paradise. And shouldst thou die, natheless even so will I send my Angels to carry thee back into Paradise." So he caused them to believe; and thus there was no order of his that they would not affront any peril to execute, for the great desire they had to get back into that Paradise of his. And in this manner the Old One got his people to murder any one whom he desired to get rid of. Thus, too, the great dread that he inspired all Princes withal, made them become his tributaries in order that he might abide at peace and amity with them.
****
One of our goals on this trip is to connect related places in different countries, and so we visited the Assassin castles of Misyaf in Syria and Alamut in Iran.
Misyaf Castle, near Hama, Syria
Alamut Castle, near Qazvin, Iran
In order to understand the origin of the Assassins, it is helpful to go back to the beginning of Islam. After the death of Mohammed in 632 AD, there arose a dispute as to who should succeed his role as the (religious and political) head of the Islamic world. One faction supported Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, while others supported Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr was elected the first caliph (or successor to Mohammed), followed in relatively quick succession by Umar, Uthman, and then finally Ali. Showing the contentiousness of the power struggles at the time, Umar, Uthman and Ali each met his end by murder. Some blamed the death of Uthman on the Ali faction (now known as Shiites), while the Shiites blamed the death of Ali on the others (now known as Sunnis). Following the death of Ali, the Sunni Umayyad dynasty, based in Damascus, took over the caliphate. During this period, the conflict between the majority Sunnis and the minority Shiites deepened, especially after the Umayyads killed Ali's son Hussein, much of his family and many of his followers, in a battle near Karbala in now Iraq.
While the Shiites have been out of the majority and power in most of the Islamic world since, there have been significant times and areas when they came into control. One of the most important areas was and remains Iran, where (Twelver) Shiites form a majority. [Cf. my post of 5.20 for an introduction to Iranian Shia Islam.] Another was the Cairo-based (Sevener Shia or Ismaili) Fatimid caliphate, named after Fatima, daughter of Mohammed and wife of Ali, which ruled much of North Africa, Egypt and nearby lands from 910-1171. [The Twelver and Sevener Shias had split earlier due to a dispute on the identity of the seventh Imam--post on Sevener Shias likely to come.]
Around 1090, the Fatimids suffered from their own succession problem. The losing faction refused to accept the new Fatimid ruler in Cairo and formed a somewhat radical rebel group in now Iran, known to us as the Assassins. The founder of the Assassins, Hassan Sabbah, established a base at Alamut in northern Iran and led his group into repeated conflict with the prevailing Sunni Muslim hierarchy. A second group of Assassins became established in now Syria, and was particularly active under the leadership of Rashid al-Din Sinan, who based himself at Misyaf Castle starting in 1140. It is believed that there may have been a third group of Assassins in now Iraq.
As you may know, the word "assassin," which we use now to describe professional killers, derives from the Assassins, who are called Assassins because it was rumored that they took hashish before embarking on their missions. And much like the contemporary English meaning of the word and its derivative, assassination, the missions of the Assassins, their method of operation, was murder: the strategic killing or attempted killing of Sunni Muslim leaders, including those of the Seljuk Turks of Anatolia and Crusader-foe Saladin. The Assassins would work by embedding an operative, sometimes over the course of years, in order to murder, or assassinate, a prominent leader or otherwise powerful or influential person.
Saladin's greatest success, prior to his defeat of the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin in 1187, was the conquest of Egypt from the Fatimid caliphate in 1171. After terminating Fatimid rule, Saladin wanted to consolidate his (Sunni) control over the region, including by wiping out the Assassins in now Syria. In 1176, Saladin sieged the castle of Misyaf. According to legend, Saladin woke up one morning during the siege to find on his bed a dagger or poisoned cakes and a threatening note, depending on the story you believe, making clear that the Assassins had infiltrated his camp and could murder him at their will. The siege was called off.
The Assassins of now Iran met their end in 1256, when Hulagu, Genghiz Khan's grandson, sucessfully sieged Alamut [cf. post of 5.27 on Hulagu and the Ilkhanids]. The Syrian branch would persist until 1273, when it was defeated by the Mamlukes.
Ruins of Alamut
Column capital at Misyaf, evidence of earlier fortifications at the site
****
Excerpt from Marco Polo on the Hassan Sabbah and the Fortress of Alamut:
The Old Man was called in their language ALOADIN. He had caused a certain valley between two mountains to be enclosed, and had turned it into a garden, the largest and most beautiful that ever was seen, filled with every variety of fruit. In it were erected pavilions and palaces the most elegant that can be imagined, all covered with gilding and exquisite painting. And there were runnels too, flowing freely with wine and milk and honey and water; and numbers of ladies and of the most beautiful damsels in the world, who could play on all manner of instruments, and sung most sweetly, and danced in a manner that it was charming to behold. For the Old Man desired to make his people believe that this was actually Paradise. So he had fashioned it after the description that Mahommet gave of his Paradise, to wit, that it should be a beautiful garden running with conduits of wine and milk and honey and water, and full of lovely women for the delectation of all its inmates. And sure enough the Saracens of those parts believed that it _was_ Paradise!
Now no man was allowed to enter the Garden save those whom he intended to be his ASHISHIN. There was a Fortress at the entrance to the Garden, strong enough to resist all the world, and there was no other way to get in. He kept at his Court a number of the youths of the country, from 12 to 20 years of age, such as had a taste for soldiering, and to these he used to tell tales about Paradise, just as Mahommet had been wont to do, and they believed in him just as the Saracens believe in Mahommet. Then he would introduce them into his garden, some four, or six, or ten at a time, having first made them drink a certain potion which cast them into a deep sleep, and then causing them to be lifted and carried in. So when they awoke, they found themselves in the Garden.
When therefore they awoke, and found themselves in a place so charming, they deemed that it was Paradise in very truth. And the ladies and damsels dallied with them to their hearts' content, so that they had what young men would have; and with their own good will they never would have quitted the place.
Now this Prince whom we call the Old One kept his Court in grand and noble style, and made those simple hill-folks about him believe firmly that he was a great Prophet. And when he wanted one of his _Ashishin_ to send on any mission, he would cause that potion whereof I spoke to be given to one of the youths in the garden, and then had him carried into his Palace. So
when the young man awoke, he found himself in the Castle, and no longer in that Paradise; whereat he was not over well pleased. He was then conducted to the Old Man's presence, and bowed before him with great veneration as believing himself to be in the presence of a true Prophet. The Prince would then ask whence he came, and he would reply that he came from Paradise! and that it was exactly such as Mahommet had described it in the Law. This of course gave the others who stood by, and who had not been admitted, the greatest desire to enter therein.
So when the Old Man would have any Prince slain, he would say to such a youth: "Go thou and slay So and So; and when thou returnest my Angels shall bear thee into Paradise. And shouldst thou die, natheless even so will I send my Angels to carry thee back into Paradise." So he caused them to believe; and thus there was no order of his that they would not affront any peril to execute, for the great desire they had to get back into that Paradise of his. And in this manner the Old One got his people to murder any one whom he desired to get rid of. Thus, too, the great dread that he inspired all Princes withal, made them become his tributaries in order that he might abide at peace and amity with them.
May 27, 2008
History of Iran: Mongols and Il Khanid
This is part of a series of an overview of Iranian history--please refer to my posts of 5.10, 5.11 and 5.19.
***
After unifying the various Mongol and Turkic forces in Central Asia, Genghiz Khan conquered much of Asia in the 13th century. The destruction in some areas was unprecedented (the destruction of Merv is still considered to be the deadliest ever conquest of a city), but also with the Mongol Empire came a regional stability that allowed a flowering of trade routes, including the ones followed by Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta (imagine, only one visa required!). In Iran, Genghiz Khan's grandson Hulagu Khan founded the Ilkhanate dynasty. The disintegration of the Ilkhanate kingdom in the mid-14th century brought with it a series of minor rulers over now Iran, until the conquests of Tamerlane from now Uzbekistan in the 15th century. Tamerlane's dynasty was even more fleeting, largely over by the reign of his grandson.
When one thinks of Mongols one may think of barbarians on horses, nomadic people whose thirst for violence and pillaging was greater than any appetite for civilization or culture. However, by the time of the establishment of Ilkhanid control over now Iran, the Mongols had adopted much of the civilization of the areas they had conquered, commissioning great Islamic art as well as spreading Chinese art forms in western Asia.
In Iran it is possible to see many relics of the Mongol and Ilkhanid periods, including two true wonders, both commissioned by Sultan Oljeitu (1280-1316), the great-grandson of Hulagu Khan. The Ilkhanid Sultan from 1304-1316, Oljeitu was first baptized a Christian, but later converted to Buddhism, Sunni Islam and then Shiite Islam, showing the great diversity of religious belief in the Mongol domains and the difficulties that the Mongols had in choosing which religion to adopt.
One Oljeitu-reign masterpiece is the prayer hall that he commissioned for the Friday Mosque of Esfahan, now called the Oljeitu chamber.
The most memorable part of the chamber, and one of the single most impressive art works in all of Iran, is the stucco mihrab.
Another Oljeitu masterwork is his tomb (by some accounts originally built for the bodies of the earliest Shiite Imams, which he wanted to bring from Iraq), a stupendously large domed mausoleum in the Ilkhanid capital of Soltaniyeh, now a few hours west of Tehran. The building, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, remains the largest brick dome in the world and one of the earliest examples of a double dome, prefiguring such buildings as the Taj Mahal.
Upstairs gallery of the Oljeitu Mausoleum. The patterns on the back wall are said to resemble Mongolian textiles.
Perhaps most immediately evoking the Asian-ness of the Mongols is their pottery. Clearly handed down from a Chinese tradition, pottery of the era, though presumably made in now Iran, feature faces that are clearly east Asian.
***
After unifying the various Mongol and Turkic forces in Central Asia, Genghiz Khan conquered much of Asia in the 13th century. The destruction in some areas was unprecedented (the destruction of Merv is still considered to be the deadliest ever conquest of a city), but also with the Mongol Empire came a regional stability that allowed a flowering of trade routes, including the ones followed by Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta (imagine, only one visa required!). In Iran, Genghiz Khan's grandson Hulagu Khan founded the Ilkhanate dynasty. The disintegration of the Ilkhanate kingdom in the mid-14th century brought with it a series of minor rulers over now Iran, until the conquests of Tamerlane from now Uzbekistan in the 15th century. Tamerlane's dynasty was even more fleeting, largely over by the reign of his grandson.
When one thinks of Mongols one may think of barbarians on horses, nomadic people whose thirst for violence and pillaging was greater than any appetite for civilization or culture. However, by the time of the establishment of Ilkhanid control over now Iran, the Mongols had adopted much of the civilization of the areas they had conquered, commissioning great Islamic art as well as spreading Chinese art forms in western Asia.
In Iran it is possible to see many relics of the Mongol and Ilkhanid periods, including two true wonders, both commissioned by Sultan Oljeitu (1280-1316), the great-grandson of Hulagu Khan. The Ilkhanid Sultan from 1304-1316, Oljeitu was first baptized a Christian, but later converted to Buddhism, Sunni Islam and then Shiite Islam, showing the great diversity of religious belief in the Mongol domains and the difficulties that the Mongols had in choosing which religion to adopt.
One Oljeitu-reign masterpiece is the prayer hall that he commissioned for the Friday Mosque of Esfahan, now called the Oljeitu chamber.
The most memorable part of the chamber, and one of the single most impressive art works in all of Iran, is the stucco mihrab.
Another Oljeitu masterwork is his tomb (by some accounts originally built for the bodies of the earliest Shiite Imams, which he wanted to bring from Iraq), a stupendously large domed mausoleum in the Ilkhanid capital of Soltaniyeh, now a few hours west of Tehran. The building, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, remains the largest brick dome in the world and one of the earliest examples of a double dome, prefiguring such buildings as the Taj Mahal.
Upstairs gallery of the Oljeitu Mausoleum. The patterns on the back wall are said to resemble Mongolian textiles.
Perhaps most immediately evoking the Asian-ness of the Mongols is their pottery. Clearly handed down from a Chinese tradition, pottery of the era, though presumably made in now Iran, feature faces that are clearly east Asian.
May 25, 2008
Food in Iran
We had fairly high expectations of Iranian food going into the trip, and to some extent our expectations were met--most things we had were quite delicious. However, sadly, food for tourists in Iran suffers from two serious problems.
The first is the same issue that I spoke of in my Syrian food entry (4.27)--the food that is generally served in restaurants is only a small subset of the cuisine as a whole, and to try other dishes essentially requires an invitation to a home-cooked meal. Just as in Syria or Turkey, restaurant food is largely kebabs, in various forms. This problem is more severe in Iran because the restaurants do not have the mezze/salad culture of Syria or Turkey, but alleviated by the fact that even fairly basic Iranian kebabis often will serve, in addition to kebab, dizi or a stew (see below for both). At home, we are told, people eat less kebabs, and more stews and rice dishes (polo).
This distinction between home food and restaurant food is common throughout the Middle East, and my two best guesses so far is that it exists either because of gender roles or history. The first theory is that there is a difference between food traditionally cooked by men and food traditionally cooked by women, with only the former being served in restaurants, where only men work. Just as men barbecue in America, grilling kebabs seems to be a man's job, and I do not recall seeing one woman working as a waitress or a cook in a proper restaurant in the Middle East. [On the other hand, there's nothing about being male that would prevent you from learning to cook other dishes and serving them in restaurants.] It's also possible that kebabs represent more masculine food (cooked around a campfire in ancestral days?), and that the customers at restaurants were, primarily, men (since women were more likely to be at home for meals).
The historical theory, I would pose, is that kebabs (due to their meatiness) somehow represented higher class food, or at least food that would be served in a premium (restaurant) setting. Grilled meat is something of a status food in other countries as well (e.g., steakhouses), and the idea of going out to eat may have been equated with eating special food that you couldn't eat at home every day. Of course, as average wealth has gone up, this is to a certain extent no longer true (many people now can afford to eat meat regularly at home, even if they do not choose to), but this "ranking" of food may persist in what restaurants serve.
Anyway, on to the food.
Let's start with the kebabs. The most common by far is a minced/pressed meat kebab called kubideh (what a Turk would call köfte). It is fairly highly seasoned in Iran, and delicious almost anywhere (although very fatty in lower class joints). It is the single most common food, here served with grilled tomatoes and onions.
Most simply, kebab can be eaten with bread, which is provided for free in Iranian restaurants, but most people order it with rice, which costs some money. The rice in Iran is long grain, similar to Indian rice, and is often served with some saffron-tinted rice and a few barberries on top. The rice is almost always cooked perfectly, light and delicious, especially with the often provided pat of butter. Here, chicken kebab with rice.
Often called "the national dish," dizi or abgusht is one of the most homey, basic foods of Iran, of northwestern/Azeri-Turkish origin we read once, and is served in restaurants as well as basic teahouses.
Dizi has quite a complicated eating process. First you drink the soup, which is a meaty tomato broth, usually by pouring it into a separate metal bowl and adding a whole lot of torn-up bread. Here, we did it in the dizi pot.
Once you have consumed all of the liquid, you mash up the solid ingredients (meat, potatoes, vegetables) with the provided masher, add some onions, mint or whatever else is provided for additional seasoning and spoon it up, perhaps with bread.
As I mentioned, many restaurants have at least one stew on hand, which is always served with rice. Two particular stews are by far the most common. The first is khoresht ghaimeh, which is a red stew made with split peas and meat. Here, pictured with yogurt, which is offered with all Iranian meals.
The second is khoresht ghormeh sabzi, which is (and tastes) green. It's a matter of personal preference and mood, I think, which of these two stews one would prefer at a given time.
Many Iranians told us that their favorite Iranian dish is fesenjun, which is meat served in a thick green sauce of walnuts and pomegranate juice. The flavor is complex and slightly tangy, to me a bit reminiscent of Mexican mole, although not quite as dark and rich. Here, it was served with chicken, as is usual, although we also saw it with lamb. Fesenjun is delicious and fairly hard to come by in a restaurant, and so we ordered it whenever possible.
Tachin. It looks almost like a quiche in this picture, and that is because it is made with a lot of egg (we think just yolk). The substance of the "pie" is rice, crusted on top, and there is a large piece of chicken buried within (visible in the lower right). Oddly, it is served on yet more rice. I found the dish a bit too egg yolk-y, for my taste, but Derek loved it. In addition to appearing on tachin, crusty rice from the side of the pot is eaten as a snack in Iran, just as in parts of East Asia.
A common "appetizer" is kashk-e bademjun, a mixture of eggplant and whey. We used it as a sort of dip for bread.
One special food in Esfahan is beriani. Although it has the same name as Indian biryani it is totally unrelated, as you can see (cf. post of 5.12). A patty of seasoned meat hides within some bread. Not too exciting.
In order to avoid eating kebabs two meals a day, we found ourselves resorting to "fast food," which in Iran generally means hamburgers and pizzas. Fast food restaurants, mostly one-off restaurants and not chains, and serving food fairly quickly but no more so than kebabis, are more common than any other kind of restaurant. The pizza in Iran is not so good (often packed with fairly bad pork-less meat products) but the hamburgers excellent (made with patties that are a combination of meat and soy). This food was from the Hamedan branch of a national chain called Atish, filled with very hip, middle-class Iranians.
I am not sure whether an Iranian would call firni breakfast food or dessert, but it was first introduced to me in Turkey (in baked form) as a dessert. Here served with sweet date sauce (without the sauce it was fairly bland).
The most common Iranian sweet, at least of those served on the street and not counting soft serve ice cream: faludeh. The light, thin short strips (made with wheat or rice, I believe, depending on where you get it), more similar to pasta than anything else, are frozen and gently flavored with rose water. Here, served with lemon sherbet on left.
The most common drink in Iran is tea, but we found these very interesting beverages on the street in many cities. I believe both are made with flowers, but know only the name of the orange one--khak-e shir. The most unique thing about these drinks, hopefully visible in the photo, is that there are countless "floaties" that slowly settle and then become suspended in the liquid again at a gentle shake. The floaties have a pleasant texture as you suck them through your straw. I was told that the drink is also supposed to have therapeutic qualities.
The first is the same issue that I spoke of in my Syrian food entry (4.27)--the food that is generally served in restaurants is only a small subset of the cuisine as a whole, and to try other dishes essentially requires an invitation to a home-cooked meal. Just as in Syria or Turkey, restaurant food is largely kebabs, in various forms. This problem is more severe in Iran because the restaurants do not have the mezze/salad culture of Syria or Turkey, but alleviated by the fact that even fairly basic Iranian kebabis often will serve, in addition to kebab, dizi or a stew (see below for both). At home, we are told, people eat less kebabs, and more stews and rice dishes (polo).
This distinction between home food and restaurant food is common throughout the Middle East, and my two best guesses so far is that it exists either because of gender roles or history. The first theory is that there is a difference between food traditionally cooked by men and food traditionally cooked by women, with only the former being served in restaurants, where only men work. Just as men barbecue in America, grilling kebabs seems to be a man's job, and I do not recall seeing one woman working as a waitress or a cook in a proper restaurant in the Middle East. [On the other hand, there's nothing about being male that would prevent you from learning to cook other dishes and serving them in restaurants.] It's also possible that kebabs represent more masculine food (cooked around a campfire in ancestral days?), and that the customers at restaurants were, primarily, men (since women were more likely to be at home for meals).
The historical theory, I would pose, is that kebabs (due to their meatiness) somehow represented higher class food, or at least food that would be served in a premium (restaurant) setting. Grilled meat is something of a status food in other countries as well (e.g., steakhouses), and the idea of going out to eat may have been equated with eating special food that you couldn't eat at home every day. Of course, as average wealth has gone up, this is to a certain extent no longer true (many people now can afford to eat meat regularly at home, even if they do not choose to), but this "ranking" of food may persist in what restaurants serve.
Anyway, on to the food.
Let's start with the kebabs. The most common by far is a minced/pressed meat kebab called kubideh (what a Turk would call köfte). It is fairly highly seasoned in Iran, and delicious almost anywhere (although very fatty in lower class joints). It is the single most common food, here served with grilled tomatoes and onions.
Most simply, kebab can be eaten with bread, which is provided for free in Iranian restaurants, but most people order it with rice, which costs some money. The rice in Iran is long grain, similar to Indian rice, and is often served with some saffron-tinted rice and a few barberries on top. The rice is almost always cooked perfectly, light and delicious, especially with the often provided pat of butter. Here, chicken kebab with rice.
Often called "the national dish," dizi or abgusht is one of the most homey, basic foods of Iran, of northwestern/Azeri-Turkish origin we read once, and is served in restaurants as well as basic teahouses.
Dizi has quite a complicated eating process. First you drink the soup, which is a meaty tomato broth, usually by pouring it into a separate metal bowl and adding a whole lot of torn-up bread. Here, we did it in the dizi pot.
Once you have consumed all of the liquid, you mash up the solid ingredients (meat, potatoes, vegetables) with the provided masher, add some onions, mint or whatever else is provided for additional seasoning and spoon it up, perhaps with bread.
As I mentioned, many restaurants have at least one stew on hand, which is always served with rice. Two particular stews are by far the most common. The first is khoresht ghaimeh, which is a red stew made with split peas and meat. Here, pictured with yogurt, which is offered with all Iranian meals.
The second is khoresht ghormeh sabzi, which is (and tastes) green. It's a matter of personal preference and mood, I think, which of these two stews one would prefer at a given time.
Many Iranians told us that their favorite Iranian dish is fesenjun, which is meat served in a thick green sauce of walnuts and pomegranate juice. The flavor is complex and slightly tangy, to me a bit reminiscent of Mexican mole, although not quite as dark and rich. Here, it was served with chicken, as is usual, although we also saw it with lamb. Fesenjun is delicious and fairly hard to come by in a restaurant, and so we ordered it whenever possible.
Tachin. It looks almost like a quiche in this picture, and that is because it is made with a lot of egg (we think just yolk). The substance of the "pie" is rice, crusted on top, and there is a large piece of chicken buried within (visible in the lower right). Oddly, it is served on yet more rice. I found the dish a bit too egg yolk-y, for my taste, but Derek loved it. In addition to appearing on tachin, crusty rice from the side of the pot is eaten as a snack in Iran, just as in parts of East Asia.
A common "appetizer" is kashk-e bademjun, a mixture of eggplant and whey. We used it as a sort of dip for bread.
One special food in Esfahan is beriani. Although it has the same name as Indian biryani it is totally unrelated, as you can see (cf. post of 5.12). A patty of seasoned meat hides within some bread. Not too exciting.
In order to avoid eating kebabs two meals a day, we found ourselves resorting to "fast food," which in Iran generally means hamburgers and pizzas. Fast food restaurants, mostly one-off restaurants and not chains, and serving food fairly quickly but no more so than kebabis, are more common than any other kind of restaurant. The pizza in Iran is not so good (often packed with fairly bad pork-less meat products) but the hamburgers excellent (made with patties that are a combination of meat and soy). This food was from the Hamedan branch of a national chain called Atish, filled with very hip, middle-class Iranians.
I am not sure whether an Iranian would call firni breakfast food or dessert, but it was first introduced to me in Turkey (in baked form) as a dessert. Here served with sweet date sauce (without the sauce it was fairly bland).
The most common Iranian sweet, at least of those served on the street and not counting soft serve ice cream: faludeh. The light, thin short strips (made with wheat or rice, I believe, depending on where you get it), more similar to pasta than anything else, are frozen and gently flavored with rose water. Here, served with lemon sherbet on left.
The most common drink in Iran is tea, but we found these very interesting beverages on the street in many cities. I believe both are made with flowers, but know only the name of the orange one--khak-e shir. The most unique thing about these drinks, hopefully visible in the photo, is that there are countless "floaties" that slowly settle and then become suspended in the liquid again at a gentle shake. The floaties have a pleasant texture as you suck them through your straw. I was told that the drink is also supposed to have therapeutic qualities.
May 24, 2008
Natural Beauty of Iran
We knew two things for certain about Iran before coming. The first was that there would be a tremendous amount to see, in terms of historical monuments. Iran is of course a center of world culture, and we knew that from Persepolis to Iran's tiled mosques, there would be much to admire and learn. The second was that people would be warm and friendly, especially to us as Americans. Our Iranian-American friend had told us this repeatedly, and so we knew that we would have a good experience as far as human interaction was concerned.
What we did not know was that Iran would have truly spectacular landscapes and scenery. Were it not for the historical sites and the gracious and hospitable people, Iran would be a worthy destination for nature alone--as it is, the landscapes usually provide mere backdrops or scenery to drive through, which is almost a shame. We'd love to come back to Iran for an outdoors or trekking trip, either in the desert or in the mountains. Unfortunately, since our trip was not aimed at this, the pictures we have are limited, but we thought that the natural beauty of Iran certainly deserved a mention on the blog.
I'm not sure what your impression of the Iranian landscape is, but I imagine many of you would think that there is a lot of desert--and in truth there is, actually far more than I imagined. The whole eastern half of the country is a series of deserts and many of Iran's greatest cities lie on the desert's fringes.
Of course, the desert can be a beautiful place. We took one specifically scenery-oriented day trip in the desert, to the Kaluts just north of Kerman in southeastern Iran. Most easily comparable to Monument Valley on the Arizona-Utah border of the American Southwest, the Kaluts were a hot but beautiful area to hike around as the sun set. Outdoor tourism here is fairly well developed, with some operators offering overnight camel and camping trips.
Painted desert, near Kerman
Joopar Mountains, near Kerman, offering in the desert the refreshing sight of snow. Springs from such mountains have historically been central to the Iranian water supply. [picture to come]
More desert mountains, near Kashan in central Iran
Northern and eastern Iran is lined with taller mountain ranges. These include both high peaks (Mt. Damavand at over 5600 meters) and relatively lower ones.
Mountains southwest of Shiraz, near the ruins of Firuzabad and Bishapur [pictures to come]
Near the Assassin castle of Alamut west of Tehran [post on Assassins of Iran to come]
Tehran itself lies at the foot of the Alborz range, which had traces of snow this early June. We were told that the previous winter had seen relatively light snowfall--but people were still skiing in spring. Northern Tehran is set on the very lowest slopes, and cool trails with mountain streams lie within city limits. Just on the other side of the Alborz mountains, a few hours drive away, is the Caspian coast, which we are told has a range of almost subtropical scenery that we did not get to see.
Not included in this post are the beautiful gardens of Iran, which I hope to include in a post on Iranian architecture to come.
What we did not know was that Iran would have truly spectacular landscapes and scenery. Were it not for the historical sites and the gracious and hospitable people, Iran would be a worthy destination for nature alone--as it is, the landscapes usually provide mere backdrops or scenery to drive through, which is almost a shame. We'd love to come back to Iran for an outdoors or trekking trip, either in the desert or in the mountains. Unfortunately, since our trip was not aimed at this, the pictures we have are limited, but we thought that the natural beauty of Iran certainly deserved a mention on the blog.
I'm not sure what your impression of the Iranian landscape is, but I imagine many of you would think that there is a lot of desert--and in truth there is, actually far more than I imagined. The whole eastern half of the country is a series of deserts and many of Iran's greatest cities lie on the desert's fringes.
Of course, the desert can be a beautiful place. We took one specifically scenery-oriented day trip in the desert, to the Kaluts just north of Kerman in southeastern Iran. Most easily comparable to Monument Valley on the Arizona-Utah border of the American Southwest, the Kaluts were a hot but beautiful area to hike around as the sun set. Outdoor tourism here is fairly well developed, with some operators offering overnight camel and camping trips.
Painted desert, near Kerman
Joopar Mountains, near Kerman, offering in the desert the refreshing sight of snow. Springs from such mountains have historically been central to the Iranian water supply. [picture to come]
More desert mountains, near Kashan in central Iran
Northern and eastern Iran is lined with taller mountain ranges. These include both high peaks (Mt. Damavand at over 5600 meters) and relatively lower ones.
Mountains southwest of Shiraz, near the ruins of Firuzabad and Bishapur [pictures to come]
Near the Assassin castle of Alamut west of Tehran [post on Assassins of Iran to come]
Tehran itself lies at the foot of the Alborz range, which had traces of snow this early June. We were told that the previous winter had seen relatively light snowfall--but people were still skiing in spring. Northern Tehran is set on the very lowest slopes, and cool trails with mountain streams lie within city limits. Just on the other side of the Alborz mountains, a few hours drive away, is the Caspian coast, which we are told has a range of almost subtropical scenery that we did not get to see.
Not included in this post are the beautiful gardens of Iran, which I hope to include in a post on Iranian architecture to come.
May 22, 2008
Mountain Hideouts: Maalula and Abiyaneh
Two towns we have visited on our trip, Maalula in Syria and Abiyaneh in Iran, bear certain resemblances to each other, and I thought that it was worth covering their similarities in a post.
Maalula is located about an hour and a half north of Damascus, in the foothills of the Anti-Lebanon mountains. The village is famous not only for having a very early Christian population--seemingly established in the first centuries after Christ--but also for the fact that its residents continue to speak Aramaic, the language that was spoken by Jesus. Shops in town sell basic Aramaic grammars and the Lord's Prayer written in Aramaic script. While it is true that many Syrians are Christian, Maalula sticks out as a particularly Christian-dominated town, where churches far outnumber mosques and a statue of Mary stands tall above the town.
Abiyaneh, located about an hour or so north of Esfahan, is also in something of a hidden valley. While its residents now share Iran's dominant religion of Shia Islam, Abiyaneh was a late holdout of Zoroastrianism, and the remnants of a fire temple are visible near the town center. Abiyaneh is known for maintaining many unique traditions, and, like Maalula, its residents (or at least its oldest residents) speak an archaic language (Middle Persian, dating from the Sassanid era, before the Arab conquest and Islam).
Abiyaneh at sunset
The women of Abiyaneh are famous for their dress, which includes floral headscarves--much more cheerful than the black chadors worn by other older Iranian women.
This woman is knocking the door with her knuckles, but note the different metal knockers on the left and right doors--they are designed to make different noises so that the residents of the house know whether a man or a woman is at the door.
A couple local men
A local man at the top of an old underground cistern, a common site in Iran (though largely unused).
We saw relatively few younger people in Abiyaneh. We were told later that many residents of Abiyaneh are quite wealthy, and have citizenship in countries other than Iran. The elderly population is resident year-round, while others return for holidays and special events. Even before widespread emigration, people from Abiyaneh were known for accumulating land in neighboring towns, and such purchases were celebrated by the village while those who sold land away were considered traitors.
Maalula and Abiyaneh are reminders that mountainous or remote terrain has acted to protect minorities and persecuted/targeted groups for centuries, and of the ability of such terrain to fragment and shelter languages. Today, however, with modern technology, mass culture and more powerful governments, such barriers are no longer effective, and the scattered residents of Abiyaneh and the residents of Maalula will no doubt have difficulty maintaining their local traditions and dialects.
Maalula is located about an hour and a half north of Damascus, in the foothills of the Anti-Lebanon mountains. The village is famous not only for having a very early Christian population--seemingly established in the first centuries after Christ--but also for the fact that its residents continue to speak Aramaic, the language that was spoken by Jesus. Shops in town sell basic Aramaic grammars and the Lord's Prayer written in Aramaic script. While it is true that many Syrians are Christian, Maalula sticks out as a particularly Christian-dominated town, where churches far outnumber mosques and a statue of Mary stands tall above the town.
Abiyaneh, located about an hour or so north of Esfahan, is also in something of a hidden valley. While its residents now share Iran's dominant religion of Shia Islam, Abiyaneh was a late holdout of Zoroastrianism, and the remnants of a fire temple are visible near the town center. Abiyaneh is known for maintaining many unique traditions, and, like Maalula, its residents (or at least its oldest residents) speak an archaic language (Middle Persian, dating from the Sassanid era, before the Arab conquest and Islam).
Abiyaneh at sunset
The women of Abiyaneh are famous for their dress, which includes floral headscarves--much more cheerful than the black chadors worn by other older Iranian women.
This woman is knocking the door with her knuckles, but note the different metal knockers on the left and right doors--they are designed to make different noises so that the residents of the house know whether a man or a woman is at the door.
A couple local men
A local man at the top of an old underground cistern, a common site in Iran (though largely unused).
We saw relatively few younger people in Abiyaneh. We were told later that many residents of Abiyaneh are quite wealthy, and have citizenship in countries other than Iran. The elderly population is resident year-round, while others return for holidays and special events. Even before widespread emigration, people from Abiyaneh were known for accumulating land in neighboring towns, and such purchases were celebrated by the village while those who sold land away were considered traitors.
Maalula and Abiyaneh are reminders that mountainous or remote terrain has acted to protect minorities and persecuted/targeted groups for centuries, and of the ability of such terrain to fragment and shelter languages. Today, however, with modern technology, mass culture and more powerful governments, such barriers are no longer effective, and the scattered residents of Abiyaneh and the residents of Maalula will no doubt have difficulty maintaining their local traditions and dialects.
May 20, 2008
Shia Islam
Before starting, I want to stress that I know little about Islam or the distinctions between Sunnis and Shiites. Nonetheless, as a reasonably educated person with a basic understanding of religions, it has been both puzzling and interesting to learn about Shia Islam, and to see traditions and practices that seem to differ quite significantly with other religions that I have had at least some contact with through earlier travels. I imagine that this post would be especially interesting to those of you who know more than I do, to see an outsider's impressions of the Shia faith Feel free to enlighten me, should I be mistaken or confused.
To start, the principal historical distinction between Sunnis and Shiites: the succession contest after the death of Mohammed. After the death of Mohammed in 632, there arose a dispute as to who should succeed his role as the (religious and political) head of the Islamic world. One faction supported Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, while others supported Abu Bakr. In the end, Abu Bakr was elected the first caliph (or successor to Mohammed), followed in relatively quick succession by Umar, Uthman, and then finally Ali. Showing the contentiousness of the power struggles at the time, Umar, Uthman and Ali each met his end by murder. Some blamed the death of Uthman on the Ali faction (now known as Shiites), while the Shiites blamed the death of Ali on the others (now known as Sunnis). Following the death of Ali, the Sunni Umayyad dynasty, based in Damascus, took over the caliphate. During this period, the conflict between the majority Sunnis and the minority Shiites deepened, especially after the Umayyads killed Ali's son Hussein, much of his family and many of his followers, at a battle near Karbala in now Iraq.
Shiites did not recognize the Sunni caliphs (which office survived to the twentieth century in the Ottoman Empire) but trace the authority of Mohammed through Ali, his wife (and daughter of Mohammed) Fatima and their progeny. Starting with Ali (the first Imam, or leader), then Ali's and Fatima's son Hassan (the second Imam), then Hassan's brother Hussein (the third Imam), and then followed by lineal descendants of Hussein for nine more generations, the Shiites (or more precisely the "Twelver" Shiites, cf. my post of 4.12 for "Sevener" Shiites) recognize twelve Imams, the twelfth one being Imam Mahdi, in the ninth century, who is said never to have died but simply gone into hiding (more on this below). In essence, they form a royal line starting from Mohammed (somewhat reminiscent of the fictional "royal blood" of Jesus and Mary Magdalene described in the book The Da Vinci Code).
The persons of these Imams form a central focus of Shiite worship. This seems, in my view, so elevated that the veneration of the imams approaches something akin to the veneration of Jesus and Mary (that is, in excess of the veneration of saints) among Christians. The names of Ali and Hussein in particular appear in calligraphic form all over Shiite Mosques, emphasizing in my view not only the importance of their persons (in addition to Allah and Mohammed, whose names appear alongside), but also to stress the Sunni/Shiite distinction. We also saw a young man wearing a ring with not the name of God or Mohammed, but Ali.
Ali's name in tilework Kufic calligraphy, next to swastikas, Friday Mosque, Yazd
Poem honoring Hussein, also in tile calligraphy, Friday Mosque, Esfahan
Shiite Muslims not only honor Fatima and the Imams (the number twelve, representing the Imams, and the number fourteen, representing the Imams plus Fatima and Mohammed, play important symbolic roles), but also accord special respect to the descendants of the Imams. In Iran there are countless (over six thousand according to sources) shrines (called "imamzadeh") for the relatives of the imams, who take on a saint-like authority to intervene on believers' behalf. Living relatives of the Imams are also specially respected, and have a special form of dress that identifies them. [More on this to come in my post on Persian identity.]
The veneration of the Imams and their relatives takes one particularly conspicuous form, which seems to me to be a central mode of Shiite worship: mourning. Observant Shiite Muslims mourn the deaths of each of the Imams for several days, putting up black banners and often breaking out into tears. The peak of this mourning is the holy holidays of Tasua and Ashura in the Islamic month of Moharram (this year, in winter), which commemorate the death of Hussein with great ceremony, including the infamous self-flagellation with chains.
We came upon this mourning first in Syria, where there are many Iranian pilgrims visiting holy Muslim (especially Shiite) sites. We thought that many of the Iranians, mostly women in chadors accompanied by a cleric, looked unhappy and seemed unfriendly. As it turned out, this was because (or at least in part because) they were mourning. It is said that crying for the Imams can cleanse sins. One man we spoke to said that his family made an annual pilgrimage to Mashhad to mourn the death of the eighth Imam.
Iranian pilgrims, in chadors, outside the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria. The Umayyad Mosque contains a shrine to Hussein including a niche in which it is said that the Umayyads placed his head after his death.
Shiite clerics at A-Sayyda Ruqayya Shrine, Damascus, Syria. Sayyda Ruqayya was the daughter of Ali.
We were in Esfahan on the anniversary of the death of Fatima. A parade featuring drums, clerics, a singer and men carrying large black, red and green flags marched through the city, followed by a crowd of men and then women in chadors, to assemble at a main park, where there was chanting and ritualized jumping up and down, slapping of heads and beating of chests. Even in religious Iran, however, the crowd was quite small for a city the size of Esfahan--much larger was the number of people observing and taking pictures and videos with their cellphone cameras.
Another important (and to me previously unknown) feature of Shiite Islam is its millenarianism, or its belief that the world as we know it will soon come to an end. It is believed that the twelfth Imam Mahdi, who was born in 868, went into hiding at age five, just after becoming the twelfth Imam at his father's death. Still alive, Imam Mahdi will reappear on Earth at a time of great war and disorder, when he will, together with Jesus, restore peace and justice. According to people I spoke to, this could happen at any time, and some Iranians believe that George W. Bush and the state of Israel are signs that Mahdi's time is coming soon. [It is unclear to me whether it is believed that Mahdi is still alive with his physical body on Earth, or alive in some more abstract sense.] Early Christianity was also a millenarian faith, and of course there are evangelical Christians who daily await the "Rapture."
To start, the principal historical distinction between Sunnis and Shiites: the succession contest after the death of Mohammed. After the death of Mohammed in 632, there arose a dispute as to who should succeed his role as the (religious and political) head of the Islamic world. One faction supported Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, while others supported Abu Bakr. In the end, Abu Bakr was elected the first caliph (or successor to Mohammed), followed in relatively quick succession by Umar, Uthman, and then finally Ali. Showing the contentiousness of the power struggles at the time, Umar, Uthman and Ali each met his end by murder. Some blamed the death of Uthman on the Ali faction (now known as Shiites), while the Shiites blamed the death of Ali on the others (now known as Sunnis). Following the death of Ali, the Sunni Umayyad dynasty, based in Damascus, took over the caliphate. During this period, the conflict between the majority Sunnis and the minority Shiites deepened, especially after the Umayyads killed Ali's son Hussein, much of his family and many of his followers, at a battle near Karbala in now Iraq.
Shiites did not recognize the Sunni caliphs (which office survived to the twentieth century in the Ottoman Empire) but trace the authority of Mohammed through Ali, his wife (and daughter of Mohammed) Fatima and their progeny. Starting with Ali (the first Imam, or leader), then Ali's and Fatima's son Hassan (the second Imam), then Hassan's brother Hussein (the third Imam), and then followed by lineal descendants of Hussein for nine more generations, the Shiites (or more precisely the "Twelver" Shiites, cf. my post of 4.12 for "Sevener" Shiites) recognize twelve Imams, the twelfth one being Imam Mahdi, in the ninth century, who is said never to have died but simply gone into hiding (more on this below). In essence, they form a royal line starting from Mohammed (somewhat reminiscent of the fictional "royal blood" of Jesus and Mary Magdalene described in the book The Da Vinci Code).
The persons of these Imams form a central focus of Shiite worship. This seems, in my view, so elevated that the veneration of the imams approaches something akin to the veneration of Jesus and Mary (that is, in excess of the veneration of saints) among Christians. The names of Ali and Hussein in particular appear in calligraphic form all over Shiite Mosques, emphasizing in my view not only the importance of their persons (in addition to Allah and Mohammed, whose names appear alongside), but also to stress the Sunni/Shiite distinction. We also saw a young man wearing a ring with not the name of God or Mohammed, but Ali.
Ali's name in tilework Kufic calligraphy, next to swastikas, Friday Mosque, Yazd
Poem honoring Hussein, also in tile calligraphy, Friday Mosque, Esfahan
Shiite Muslims not only honor Fatima and the Imams (the number twelve, representing the Imams, and the number fourteen, representing the Imams plus Fatima and Mohammed, play important symbolic roles), but also accord special respect to the descendants of the Imams. In Iran there are countless (over six thousand according to sources) shrines (called "imamzadeh") for the relatives of the imams, who take on a saint-like authority to intervene on believers' behalf. Living relatives of the Imams are also specially respected, and have a special form of dress that identifies them. [More on this to come in my post on Persian identity.]
The veneration of the Imams and their relatives takes one particularly conspicuous form, which seems to me to be a central mode of Shiite worship: mourning. Observant Shiite Muslims mourn the deaths of each of the Imams for several days, putting up black banners and often breaking out into tears. The peak of this mourning is the holy holidays of Tasua and Ashura in the Islamic month of Moharram (this year, in winter), which commemorate the death of Hussein with great ceremony, including the infamous self-flagellation with chains.
We came upon this mourning first in Syria, where there are many Iranian pilgrims visiting holy Muslim (especially Shiite) sites. We thought that many of the Iranians, mostly women in chadors accompanied by a cleric, looked unhappy and seemed unfriendly. As it turned out, this was because (or at least in part because) they were mourning. It is said that crying for the Imams can cleanse sins. One man we spoke to said that his family made an annual pilgrimage to Mashhad to mourn the death of the eighth Imam.
Iranian pilgrims, in chadors, outside the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria. The Umayyad Mosque contains a shrine to Hussein including a niche in which it is said that the Umayyads placed his head after his death.
Shiite clerics at A-Sayyda Ruqayya Shrine, Damascus, Syria. Sayyda Ruqayya was the daughter of Ali.
We were in Esfahan on the anniversary of the death of Fatima. A parade featuring drums, clerics, a singer and men carrying large black, red and green flags marched through the city, followed by a crowd of men and then women in chadors, to assemble at a main park, where there was chanting and ritualized jumping up and down, slapping of heads and beating of chests. Even in religious Iran, however, the crowd was quite small for a city the size of Esfahan--much larger was the number of people observing and taking pictures and videos with their cellphone cameras.
Another important (and to me previously unknown) feature of Shiite Islam is its millenarianism, or its belief that the world as we know it will soon come to an end. It is believed that the twelfth Imam Mahdi, who was born in 868, went into hiding at age five, just after becoming the twelfth Imam at his father's death. Still alive, Imam Mahdi will reappear on Earth at a time of great war and disorder, when he will, together with Jesus, restore peace and justice. According to people I spoke to, this could happen at any time, and some Iranians believe that George W. Bush and the state of Israel are signs that Mahdi's time is coming soon. [It is unclear to me whether it is believed that Mahdi is still alive with his physical body on Earth, or alive in some more abstract sense.] Early Christianity was also a millenarian faith, and of course there are evangelical Christians who daily await the "Rapture."
May 19, 2008
History of Iran: Safavid Esfahan
This is part of a series of an overview of Iranian history--please refer to my posts of 5.10 and 5.11.
***
The Mongols conquered much of Asia in the 13th century, establishing in the wake of Genghiz Khan four separate kingdoms, including the Ilkhanate dynasty in now Iran and the lands directly east and west of now Iran. The disintegration of the Ilkhanate kingdom in the mid-14th century brought with it a series of lesser rulers over now Iran, until the conquests of Tamerlane from now Uzbekistan in the 15th century. Tamerlane's was an even more fleeting dynasty in Central Asia and now Iran, largely over by the reign of his grandson.
During this same period rose a Sufi (charismatic/mystical Islamic) order in Ardabil in now northwest Iran. Claiming descent from a Sufi leader named Sheikh Safi od-Din (1252-1334), who in turn was said to have descended from the seventh Shiite Imam [post on Shia Islam to come], this Sufi order became organized and militant and by the end of the fifteenth century declared itself a state that eventually conquered now Iran, the Caucasus, southwestern Central Asia and much of now Iraq and Afghanistan. During their rise they expanded trade and established links with the West, but came into conflict with neighbors the Uzbeks (to the northeast) and the Ottomans (to the west), which conflicts are memorialized in their art (see below).
The Safavids are notable not only for representing one of the high points of Iranian civilization, but also for religious intolerance. Like the Sassanids before them, the Safavids claimed descent from a religious leader (Sassan was a Zoroastrian priest) and enforced a state religion. The Safavids coerced the conversions of many Zoroastrian and Sunni Iranians to Shia Islam. One Iranian told us that the deepening differentiation of Shia beliefs and practices from those of the Sunni may have been encouraged by Europeans, who wanted to divide and weaken the Muslim world. I do not know what historical support there is for such a theory, but it seems likely to me that the Safavids also saw merit in identifying themselves as leaders of a (sub)faith in order to contrast themselves with their opponents, the Ottomans, who had stewardship of Sunni Muslims worldwide through control of the Sunni caliphate, and to unite Safavid Iran under a common banner. Then, as now, differences in religious sects were used to political ends, subfaiths used to distinguish one's country from its neighbors. [Posts on Shia Islam and Persian identity to come.]
The greatest Safavid ruler was Shah Abbas I (1587-1629), or Shah Abbas the Great, who moved the capital of the kingdom to Esfahan and endowed it with architectural treasures, the greatest parts of which survive today. Esfahan is truly one of the most beautiful cities we have ever visited, its many Safavid relics still forming a harmonious whole, in combination with many earlier structures and the modern tree-lined streets and flowing fountains of a prosperous city.
The most famous landmark of Esfahan, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is Naqsh-e Jahan ("Pattern of the World"), or Imam, Square, located in the heart of the Safavid city. The square is truly regal in its proportions, and blessed with many architectural treasures.
On the south side of the square is the great Qeysariah Gate to the Great Bazaar of Esfahan. The mural depicts a battle between the Safavids and the Uzbeks (which was, of course, won by the Safavids).
The bazaar connects Naqsh-e Jahan Square all the way to the Friday Mosque in the northern part of the old city. [The Friday Mosque itself substantially predates the Safavids, although the Safavids, like almost every Iranian dynasty, built on to it. Post on Iranian architecture to come, which will feature some pictures of the Friday Mosque.] The shops closest to the square, including those around its perimeter, tend to specialize in handicrafts and souvenirs, including especially carpets and miniature paintings. According to guidebooks, only about a third of the bazaars of Esfahan survive, but what remains is still quite extensive.
On the north side of Naqsh-e Jahan Square is Imam Mosque, known before the Islamic revolution as the Shah Mosque.
A huge structure with a large courtyard with four iwans, the Imam Mosque's dome and minarets can be seen from far away.
A prayer hall of the Imam Mosque, truly cavernous. The Imam Mosque is said to have been constructed in a hurry, and much of its tilework is not mosaic but painted. [Post on Iranian architecture to come.]
On the eastern side of the square is the Sheikh Lotfallah Mosque, certainly one of the most beautiful mosques that we have visited (and likely one of the most beautiful in the world). The dome is muted and subtle on the outside and simply spectacular on the inside.
Sheikh Lotfallah Mosque at night. The apparent asymmetry of the Sheikh Lotfallah and Imam Mosques from the outside is due to the Mosques' orientation toward Mecca, not shared by the square itself.
Finally, on the west side of the square is Ali Qapu Palace. The Ali Qapu also acted as a gateway to the many palaces and parks to the west of the square.
Roof of the terrace overlooking the square.
On the west side of the square are many former palaces, all set in lush parks. We were most entranced by Chehel Sotun ("Forty Columns") Palace, which was re-constructed in the early 18th century following a fire (which supposedly the Shah, a religious man, let burn as it must have been intended by god).
The paintings inside are spectacular, and tell many stories. Some are Safavid in origin, and depict great events of the Safavid state, such as visits by neighboring rulers seeking the aid of the Safavids and great battles showing the Safavids defeating their opponents. The murals were covered up by the Afghans, who successfully invaded Esfahan in the early 18th century. Others were painted by Nader Shah, who defeated the Afghans and took over the reigns from the Safavids. The guidebooks (though not our guide) point out one mural of a man kissing a woman's foot which was almost destroyed by during the Islamic revolution, but saved by the palace's custodians.
Almost matching Naqsh-e Jahan Square in terms of enjoyability are Esfahan's bridges. Some of the bridges predate the Safavids, but their present forms are largely Safavid. The Si-o-Se (or Thirty-Three Arch) Bridge, the longest in Esfahan.
Our hotel was across the Si-o-Se, and we loved strolling across it every evening on the way back to our room, pausing to sit under its arches. While we rested and enjoyed the cool evening air at least every few minutes Esfahanis would pause to say hello, leading to some interesting conversations!
The Chubi Bridge. The Si-o-Se and the Chubi bridges both house traditional teahouses, where you can sit and enjoy the river and snacks.
***
The Mongols conquered much of Asia in the 13th century, establishing in the wake of Genghiz Khan four separate kingdoms, including the Ilkhanate dynasty in now Iran and the lands directly east and west of now Iran. The disintegration of the Ilkhanate kingdom in the mid-14th century brought with it a series of lesser rulers over now Iran, until the conquests of Tamerlane from now Uzbekistan in the 15th century. Tamerlane's was an even more fleeting dynasty in Central Asia and now Iran, largely over by the reign of his grandson.
During this same period rose a Sufi (charismatic/mystical Islamic) order in Ardabil in now northwest Iran. Claiming descent from a Sufi leader named Sheikh Safi od-Din (1252-1334), who in turn was said to have descended from the seventh Shiite Imam [post on Shia Islam to come], this Sufi order became organized and militant and by the end of the fifteenth century declared itself a state that eventually conquered now Iran, the Caucasus, southwestern Central Asia and much of now Iraq and Afghanistan. During their rise they expanded trade and established links with the West, but came into conflict with neighbors the Uzbeks (to the northeast) and the Ottomans (to the west), which conflicts are memorialized in their art (see below).
The Safavids are notable not only for representing one of the high points of Iranian civilization, but also for religious intolerance. Like the Sassanids before them, the Safavids claimed descent from a religious leader (Sassan was a Zoroastrian priest) and enforced a state religion. The Safavids coerced the conversions of many Zoroastrian and Sunni Iranians to Shia Islam. One Iranian told us that the deepening differentiation of Shia beliefs and practices from those of the Sunni may have been encouraged by Europeans, who wanted to divide and weaken the Muslim world. I do not know what historical support there is for such a theory, but it seems likely to me that the Safavids also saw merit in identifying themselves as leaders of a (sub)faith in order to contrast themselves with their opponents, the Ottomans, who had stewardship of Sunni Muslims worldwide through control of the Sunni caliphate, and to unite Safavid Iran under a common banner. Then, as now, differences in religious sects were used to political ends, subfaiths used to distinguish one's country from its neighbors. [Posts on Shia Islam and Persian identity to come.]
The greatest Safavid ruler was Shah Abbas I (1587-1629), or Shah Abbas the Great, who moved the capital of the kingdom to Esfahan and endowed it with architectural treasures, the greatest parts of which survive today. Esfahan is truly one of the most beautiful cities we have ever visited, its many Safavid relics still forming a harmonious whole, in combination with many earlier structures and the modern tree-lined streets and flowing fountains of a prosperous city.
The most famous landmark of Esfahan, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is Naqsh-e Jahan ("Pattern of the World"), or Imam, Square, located in the heart of the Safavid city. The square is truly regal in its proportions, and blessed with many architectural treasures.
On the south side of the square is the great Qeysariah Gate to the Great Bazaar of Esfahan. The mural depicts a battle between the Safavids and the Uzbeks (which was, of course, won by the Safavids).
The bazaar connects Naqsh-e Jahan Square all the way to the Friday Mosque in the northern part of the old city. [The Friday Mosque itself substantially predates the Safavids, although the Safavids, like almost every Iranian dynasty, built on to it. Post on Iranian architecture to come, which will feature some pictures of the Friday Mosque.] The shops closest to the square, including those around its perimeter, tend to specialize in handicrafts and souvenirs, including especially carpets and miniature paintings. According to guidebooks, only about a third of the bazaars of Esfahan survive, but what remains is still quite extensive.
On the north side of Naqsh-e Jahan Square is Imam Mosque, known before the Islamic revolution as the Shah Mosque.
A huge structure with a large courtyard with four iwans, the Imam Mosque's dome and minarets can be seen from far away.
A prayer hall of the Imam Mosque, truly cavernous. The Imam Mosque is said to have been constructed in a hurry, and much of its tilework is not mosaic but painted. [Post on Iranian architecture to come.]
On the eastern side of the square is the Sheikh Lotfallah Mosque, certainly one of the most beautiful mosques that we have visited (and likely one of the most beautiful in the world). The dome is muted and subtle on the outside and simply spectacular on the inside.
Sheikh Lotfallah Mosque at night. The apparent asymmetry of the Sheikh Lotfallah and Imam Mosques from the outside is due to the Mosques' orientation toward Mecca, not shared by the square itself.
Finally, on the west side of the square is Ali Qapu Palace. The Ali Qapu also acted as a gateway to the many palaces and parks to the west of the square.
Roof of the terrace overlooking the square.
On the west side of the square are many former palaces, all set in lush parks. We were most entranced by Chehel Sotun ("Forty Columns") Palace, which was re-constructed in the early 18th century following a fire (which supposedly the Shah, a religious man, let burn as it must have been intended by god).
The paintings inside are spectacular, and tell many stories. Some are Safavid in origin, and depict great events of the Safavid state, such as visits by neighboring rulers seeking the aid of the Safavids and great battles showing the Safavids defeating their opponents. The murals were covered up by the Afghans, who successfully invaded Esfahan in the early 18th century. Others were painted by Nader Shah, who defeated the Afghans and took over the reigns from the Safavids. The guidebooks (though not our guide) point out one mural of a man kissing a woman's foot which was almost destroyed by during the Islamic revolution, but saved by the palace's custodians.
Almost matching Naqsh-e Jahan Square in terms of enjoyability are Esfahan's bridges. Some of the bridges predate the Safavids, but their present forms are largely Safavid. The Si-o-Se (or Thirty-Three Arch) Bridge, the longest in Esfahan.
Our hotel was across the Si-o-Se, and we loved strolling across it every evening on the way back to our room, pausing to sit under its arches. While we rested and enjoyed the cool evening air at least every few minutes Esfahanis would pause to say hello, leading to some interesting conversations!
The Chubi Bridge. The Si-o-Se and the Chubi bridges both house traditional teahouses, where you can sit and enjoy the river and snacks.
May 18, 2008
Windows, a Guest Poem
A man in Esfahan gave me this poem, unsolicited, and asked me to put it on my website. Here it is:
People tell me that windows
Don't have feelings or a heart
But when the glass of a window
Is steamed up
And I'm writing with my finger on it
The words "I love you"
Then the window panes start to cry!!!
People tell me that windows
Don't have feelings or a heart
But when the glass of a window
Is steamed up
And I'm writing with my finger on it
The words "I love you"
Then the window panes start to cry!!!
Esfahan Moment
10 PM, sitting at a table at a fast food shop on Chahar Bagh, the main avenue in town, itself a Safavid creation. Waiting on Derek, who's ordering food.
Shop's full of people--what a treat to eat with others, busy and lively, illuminated signs and maybe even the glint of neon. Nice to be back in urban life, out of cities that died in the evening, people retreating to their homes. Noise of the servers wrapping up food, people ordering, and the honking of cars on the road.
I hear Derek cluck to explain that he wants chicken, and then look over just in time to catch the end of his rooster strut and see him slap his butt to indicate a thigh piece--people stare and laugh, as do I.
An African man stands at the counter, an Asiatic (Hazara?) boy meets my eyes, a man with three shirt buttons undone empties a packet of ketchup onto his pizza pie.
Bus boy stands in his dirty short sleeve uniform, wearing a New York Yankees cap, wipes his brow.
A man scraggly bearded--is he an example of the type who supports the government? Contrary to so many of the people who choose to speak to us? Is it people like him that put the country where it is?
Next table, an odd couple: A middle-aged American (?) and a younger Iranian guy. Did they meet on the Internet? What is the nature of their encounter? The American seems to be explaining atheism--something about believing himself a monkey sitting on a rock revolving around a blazing ball.
Derek returns to the table.
Shop's full of people--what a treat to eat with others, busy and lively, illuminated signs and maybe even the glint of neon. Nice to be back in urban life, out of cities that died in the evening, people retreating to their homes. Noise of the servers wrapping up food, people ordering, and the honking of cars on the road.
I hear Derek cluck to explain that he wants chicken, and then look over just in time to catch the end of his rooster strut and see him slap his butt to indicate a thigh piece--people stare and laugh, as do I.
An African man stands at the counter, an Asiatic (Hazara?) boy meets my eyes, a man with three shirt buttons undone empties a packet of ketchup onto his pizza pie.
Bus boy stands in his dirty short sleeve uniform, wearing a New York Yankees cap, wipes his brow.
A man scraggly bearded--is he an example of the type who supports the government? Contrary to so many of the people who choose to speak to us? Is it people like him that put the country where it is?
Next table, an odd couple: A middle-aged American (?) and a younger Iranian guy. Did they meet on the Internet? What is the nature of their encounter? The American seems to be explaining atheism--something about believing himself a monkey sitting on a rock revolving around a blazing ball.
Derek returns to the table.
May 17, 2008
Armenians
We don't know if we'll make it to Armenia later this year, but it's been fascinating to see how far and wide outside of Armenia Armenians have settled. Stuck in a corner of the world among greater powers (Iran, Russia and Turkey), Armenians have by choice and by force scattered widely across the world. Despite their turbulent history, many of these Armenian communities have survived, and the extent to which they have preserved their culture and prospered is truly impressive (the Jews are the only other people I can compare them to).
India:
In their easternmost reaches, Armenian communities represented the success of Armenians in the business of trade. Armenians were among the first (though possibly not the very first--see my post of 3.5) Christians to settle in India, wher they took an active role in international comerce. One of the British Hong Kong's foremost residents, Sir Paul Chater, for whom is still named so many things in Hong Kong, was an Armenian of Indian birth. Few Armenians remain in India today.
Madras, India, has several Armenian sites, including 18th century St. Mary's Church (building closed when we visited). Armenians were some of the first Christians in India
Armenian gravestone, Luz Church (itself originally Portuguese), Madras
Iran:
Outside Vank Cathedral, Esfahan
The Armenians of the city of Jolfa on what is now Iran's border with Azerbaijan were forced to move to Esfahan in 1603 during the reign of Safavid Shah Abbas the Great, who wanted to enhance his new capital with the Armenians' talents and commercial skills. While the move itself was forced, the Armenians were granted substantial land in Esfahan (in a neighborhood named New Jolfa, or now just Jolfa) and enjoyed certain freedoms and autonomy, protected by the power of the Shahs. These protections were not always continued by later rulers.
Vank Cathedral, Esfahan (note the use of Iranian architectural styles)
Brick and tilework detail
Inside Vank Cathedral
Like many Armenian communities around the world, the Armenians of Iran have been quite successful, now based largely in Tehran and Esfahan. In Tehran tourists are welcome to dine at the peaceful Armenian Club, located near the French and Italian Embassies, where non-Muslim women need not follow the hejab (Islamic dress code). The Armenian population increased during World War I as Armenians fled now Turkey (see also below, under "Syria"), but has steadily decreased since then as Armenians have left Iran for Armenia, the U.S. and Europe. There are some 20,000 Armenians left in Iran, about a tenth of the historical population.
Armenian church service
Recording of music from mass
In Jolfa, Esfahan, there are twelve Armenian churches, but there are only enough worshippers and clergy to celebrate mass in one or two, the churches rotating on a weekly basis. Following the historical precedent of Islam, the Iranian government seems to let Christians worship freely, at least within their churches. However, an Armenian that I spoke to said that the situation was peaceful "especially under [former president] Khatami," implying that conditions for the Armenians have deteriorated under Ahmedinejad. Asked further, the Armenian mentioned that the greatest problems were judicial (presumably meaning that Armenians have limited access to justice in the courts) and discrimination for government posts.
Inside Bethlehem Church
Syria:
Marco Polo noted that now Turkey was populated by three peoples: Turks ("a rude people with an uncouth language of their own" [!]), and Armenians and Greeks ("who live mixt with the former in the towns and villages, occupying themselves with trade and handicrafts"). During what is now called the Armenian Genocide around the time of World War I, hundreds of thousands of Armenians died and were killed in now Turkey with survivors fleeing to areas outside now Turkey, including Iran but especially Syria.
In Syria, Armenians were first taken to the middle of the desert, at Deir ez-Zur near Dura Europos (cf. post of 4.24), and then joined other Christians already settled in Syria, including in the Christian district of Aleppo. Currently Armenians make up a substantial portion of the population of central Aleppo, where they are prosperous and live among Arab Christians. We were told that flights between Aleppo and Yerevan are always full, reflecting the strong link between the Armenian communities in Syria and Armenia.
Street in Christian district of Aleppo, Armenian orphanage on right
Syrian-style inlay in Armenian, Armenian church, Aleppo
Armenian mass, Aleppo
India:
In their easternmost reaches, Armenian communities represented the success of Armenians in the business of trade. Armenians were among the first (though possibly not the very first--see my post of 3.5) Christians to settle in India, wher they took an active role in international comerce. One of the British Hong Kong's foremost residents, Sir Paul Chater, for whom is still named so many things in Hong Kong, was an Armenian of Indian birth. Few Armenians remain in India today.
Madras, India, has several Armenian sites, including 18th century St. Mary's Church (building closed when we visited). Armenians were some of the first Christians in India
Armenian gravestone, Luz Church (itself originally Portuguese), Madras
Iran:
Outside Vank Cathedral, Esfahan
The Armenians of the city of Jolfa on what is now Iran's border with Azerbaijan were forced to move to Esfahan in 1603 during the reign of Safavid Shah Abbas the Great, who wanted to enhance his new capital with the Armenians' talents and commercial skills. While the move itself was forced, the Armenians were granted substantial land in Esfahan (in a neighborhood named New Jolfa, or now just Jolfa) and enjoyed certain freedoms and autonomy, protected by the power of the Shahs. These protections were not always continued by later rulers.
Vank Cathedral, Esfahan (note the use of Iranian architectural styles)
Brick and tilework detail
Inside Vank Cathedral
Like many Armenian communities around the world, the Armenians of Iran have been quite successful, now based largely in Tehran and Esfahan. In Tehran tourists are welcome to dine at the peaceful Armenian Club, located near the French and Italian Embassies, where non-Muslim women need not follow the hejab (Islamic dress code). The Armenian population increased during World War I as Armenians fled now Turkey (see also below, under "Syria"), but has steadily decreased since then as Armenians have left Iran for Armenia, the U.S. and Europe. There are some 20,000 Armenians left in Iran, about a tenth of the historical population.
Armenian church service
Recording of music from mass
In Jolfa, Esfahan, there are twelve Armenian churches, but there are only enough worshippers and clergy to celebrate mass in one or two, the churches rotating on a weekly basis. Following the historical precedent of Islam, the Iranian government seems to let Christians worship freely, at least within their churches. However, an Armenian that I spoke to said that the situation was peaceful "especially under [former president] Khatami," implying that conditions for the Armenians have deteriorated under Ahmedinejad. Asked further, the Armenian mentioned that the greatest problems were judicial (presumably meaning that Armenians have limited access to justice in the courts) and discrimination for government posts.
Inside Bethlehem Church
Syria:
Marco Polo noted that now Turkey was populated by three peoples: Turks ("a rude people with an uncouth language of their own" [!]), and Armenians and Greeks ("who live mixt with the former in the towns and villages, occupying themselves with trade and handicrafts"). During what is now called the Armenian Genocide around the time of World War I, hundreds of thousands of Armenians died and were killed in now Turkey with survivors fleeing to areas outside now Turkey, including Iran but especially Syria.
In Syria, Armenians were first taken to the middle of the desert, at Deir ez-Zur near Dura Europos (cf. post of 4.24), and then joined other Christians already settled in Syria, including in the Christian district of Aleppo. Currently Armenians make up a substantial portion of the population of central Aleppo, where they are prosperous and live among Arab Christians. We were told that flights between Aleppo and Yerevan are always full, reflecting the strong link between the Armenian communities in Syria and Armenia.
Street in Christian district of Aleppo, Armenian orphanage on right
Syrian-style inlay in Armenian, Armenian church, Aleppo
Armenian mass, Aleppo
May 14, 2008
Zoroastrianism
Religion is a central aspect of human culture, and religious worship and religious edifices make up some of the most interesting and important sights for a traveler to a foreign land. In truth, however, the number of distinct, well-developed religious traditions is limited. As one becomes familiar with the basics of Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism, travel offers the opportunity to discover greater details, distinctions among the various subfaiths of these religions, but not the original sense of wonder that is afforded to a Western traveler first encountering Islam in the domes and minarets of Istanbul or an Eastern traveler's first sight of the great European churches such as St. Peter's Basilica or Notre Dame Cathedral.
All of which makes it so exciting, as a relatively seasoned traveler, to see an entirely different faith in the flesh. The world's Zoroastrian population may be limited (at most, 200,000 people), but Zoroastrian communities are highly visible in parts of both India and Iran.
Estimates of the lifetime of Zoroaster (also called Zartosht and Zarathustra--as in Richard Strauss's Thus Spake Zarathustra of 2001: A Space Odyssey fame) vary, but many scholars currently believe that he lived in the eleventh or tenth century BC. He is regarded as the prophet of the religion named after him, which caught on especially as the dominant religion of the Persian Empire in the Achaemenid and Sassanid periods. The sacred texts, called the Gathas, which are part of the Avestas, are written in an ancient script and chanted by the priests as part of Zoroastrian worship.
audio clip of Zoroastrian chant
Most importantly, Zoroastrians believe in one god, Ahura Mazda, who created the universe and will prevail despite the presence of certain evil forces. It is often said that Zoroastrianism was the world's first monotheistic religion.
The faravahar is the most important symbol of Zoroastrianism, seen here as carved at Persepolis. The man with his right hand shows obeisance to Ahura Mazda while he holds in his left hand a ring showing his promise to the god. The three layers of feathers in the wings represent good thought, good words and good deeds, while the three layers of feathers in the "tail" represent bad thoughts, bad words and bad deeds, which we should aim to put under us. The ring in the center represents the connectedness of the world and causality. The "leg" to the left represents evil spirits while the "leg" to the right represents good spirits.
We were told that people pray five times a day, oriented toward a light source if possible. The most important light source is the fire that burns at a Zoroastrian fire temple, but it is not considered essential for Zoroastrians to pray at the fire temple--any light suffices. Zoroastrians revere fire as one of the four sacred elements of creation (in addition to water, earth and air), but do not worship it--a common misconception in historical times.
Fire temple, Yazd, Iran
The fire inside the fire temple in Yazd. It is said that the fire, brought from older fire temples, has been burning without interruption since 470 AD.
A water, or Anahita, temple ruin at the city of Bishapur. When used, the central courtyard would have been flooded along with channels that run around an interior perimeter within the walls, on the other side of the doors that are visible.
Zoroastrianism became a state religion under the Sassanids (224-642 AD), who practiced a form of Zoroastrianism that is said to have been contaminated by Mithraism, another local faith. Since Islamic Arab conquest of now Iran in the seventh century, most of the population of Iran has converted to Islam, but around 40,000 Zoroastrians remain. It has been suggested that the decline of Zoroastrianism was due in part to its close association with the Sassanid state.
The Zoroastrian pilgrimage site of Chak Chak, to where it is believed that the last Sassanid princess fled. Low on water at this desert site, she is said to have thrown her staff at the mountain, at which a stream of water began to drip ("chak, chak, chak..."). The bronze doors depict Zoroaster.
At the time of the Arab conquest, a number of Iranians fled to India, where as a minority of around 70,000 centered around Bombay they retain their Zoroastrian faith. The Parsis, as the Zoroastrians of India are called, see themselves as Indians and not Iranians (they speak Gujarati, the language of Gujarat, India, where they first settled after leaving Iran), but maintain their historical and religious links to Iran. Parsis travel to Iran for pilgrimage and communicate with Iranian Zoroastrians on theological matters (although there is no central combined hierarchy), and there has also been intermarriage between the Zoroastrians of Iran and India. Parsis have been very successful, financially, and have provided material support to Zoroastrians in Iran.
A Parsi temple in Bombay, India
Tiled plaque inside the Chak Chak shrine, in Gujarati, the language of the Indian Parsis.
One of the most famous stories of Zoroastrians is that they do not bury the dead. Traditionally, Zoroastrians leave the bodies, which to them are meaningless vessels once the soul has departed, to decay and be eaten by scavenger birds in "towers of silence." One Zoroastrian priest explained to us with unusually scientific vocabulary for a religious man that this allows the proteins of our bodies to be reincorporated as quickly as possible in another living animal. Towers of silence are no longer used in Iran, where they have been prohibited on health grounds since the Islamic Revolution, but are still used in India, with the help of chemical accelerants to promote decomposition, as the urbanization of Bombay has resulted in fewer and fewer scavengers.
A tower of silence outside Yazd. In the foreground is a cistern, with wind towers to cool the water.
Inside the tower. After the bones had been picked clean of flesh, they were deposited into the ossuary/well in the middle.
Modern Zoroastrian cemetery, Yazd. The bodies are buried in inert cement containers so as to not pollute the earth, one of the four sacred elements.
It's often possible to recognize Zoroastrians in Iran because though they are ethnically fairly similar to the Muslim Iranians (unlike the Christians, who are largely Armenian), they tend to dress more casually. While they are required to adhere to the Islamic dress code, it seems they take it less to heart. One Iranian Zoroastrian told us that it is a bad time in Iran, with the current Iranian government, and many Zoroastrians, who on average are relatively well off, are emigrating.
Due to strict rules regarding conversion (the Parsis do not permit non-Parsis to convert to Zoroastrianism and the laws of the Islamic Republic of Iran forbid Muslims from converting to other faiths under penalty of death), it seems likely that the world's Zoroastrian population will further dwindle. [One Parsi told us that complicating the matter is that a majority of Parsi men are gay!] Unless there is a renaissance in conversions to Zoroastrianism by Iranians seeking a return to their ancient religious roots (that is, after a change in Iranian law), it would seem likely that the religion will, eventually, die out.
An Iranian Zoroastrian man. [Note: Not the source of any information for this or any post.]
May 12, 2008
Iran and India
This post can be read as a follow-up to my post of 3.28.
****************
When I first heard about the Zoroastrian Parsis of Bombay five years ago, I was surprised to learn that there was any connection at all between Iran and India. Of course, a quick look at a map shows that Iran borders the subcontinent (a fairly long frontier with Pakistan on both sides of which live the ethnic group of the Baluchis), but Iran in my mind was in the Middle East (together with the Arab world), while Pakistan, India and the rest of the subcontinent fell under the designation South Asia.
Being in Iran has helped me recognize that the historical and cultural connections between Iran and India are far more significant than I realized, even after my visit to Hyderabad. [Visiting Pakistan, no doubt, would further make clear the many links.] For ease of discussion, I will discuss the ties between Iran and India in categories.
Ethnic. Two peoples on the Earth (not counting Nazi Germany) are noted for having foundational myths that relate back to an "Aryan" people--Iran and India. In the case of Iran, ancient texts refer to the original Iranians as Aryans, coming from the Caucasus, and the name of the country itself means "land of the Aryans." And as you may have learned in school, the basic ethnic history of India is that Aryan people entered the subcontinent from now Afghanistan, to displace and to some extent subjugate the preexisting Dravidian people, who now populate the darker-skin realms of South India.
According to these foundational legends, the Iranian and Indian peoples can be seen as brothers or cousins. And whether or not you believe these legends to be true, the physical similarity between some Iranians and Indians cannot be denied. Of course, many Indians and Iranians don't look anything like each other--if you had to choose two nations that had similar looking people, these two would not be them--but there is definitely an overlap in the physical type that wasn't apparent to me before visiting India and Iran in relatively close succession. Surprisingly many Iranians could easily pass for Indian (and vice versa, I suppose, although most people in the world are more familiar with what Indians look like than Iranians).
Historical/Linguistic. Farsi, the language spoken most widely in Iran, and northern Indian languages, such as Hindi, are the easternmost languages of the Indo-European language group and are said to comprise its "Indo-Iranian branch." This hit me off-guard when, while looking at some tiles, I was told that "green" and "vegetable" in Farsi were "sabz" and "sabzi," respectively, the latter of which I knew to the same word in Hindi from our Indian travels. No doubt there are many, many other common words given the linguistic closeness of the languages.
As I mentioned in my post of 3.28, many Muslim rulers of India, including the Mughals, were Farsi-speaking, and so Farsi was a court language in India for a fair amount of its history. These rulers came not only directly from now Iran, as the rulers of Golconda I described in my post of 3.28, but also from what may be called Greater Persia, which includes the parts of Afghanistan and Central Asia that were for much of history under the same control as now Iran and populated by people who speak Farsi or closely related languages. Until the nineteenth century, Farsi was in relatively common use in India, at least in certain circles, and many Iranians traveled to and lived in India to seek their fortunes.
Given this history, Farsi influence has great in Urdu, the language of Pakistan, which even uses, like Farsi, a modified Arabic script. I am told by an Iranian-American friend and reader of the blog that an Urdu speaker once told my friend that he could understand my friend's Farsi. If so, it must be relatively easy for a Farsi speaker to learn Urdu and vice versa.
I had learned from prior research that "biryani" (as in the Indian rice dish) was derived from the Farsi word for frying or roasting, and so got my hopes up that there would be a Persian equivalent of the dish--a sort of ur-biryani that was transported to India. Ordering a beriani in Esfahan, I received something like a fried hamburger patty, and so learned that given the extensive use of Farsi in India, there must be many things that have Farsi names but are purely from the subcontinent. [Post on Iranian food to come.]
Modern Cultural. Iranian people may to a certain extent look down on India today, and to a certain extent Iran and Iranian culture have held the position of a superior to India over history, but there are still many contemporary connections between Iran and India. Indian movies are popular in Iran, although perhaps not as popular as American movies. We've spoken to and heard of Iranians who have either studied in India or plan to study in India for its relatively low cost and high quality of education. In addition to its well-established universities, India is of course a free society and affords many opportunities to learn about the world not available in Iran.
Zoroastrians. Deserving its own category is the Zoroastrian connection. At the time of the Arab conquest of the Sassanid Empire in the seventh century, a significant population of Iranians fled Iran for India. Known as Parsis, they retain their Zoroastrian faith and form a discrete minority population in India, centered around Bombay. The Parsis of India today see themselves as Indians and not Iranians (they speak Gujarati, the language of Gujarat, India, where they first settled after leaving Iran), but maintain their historical and religious links to Iran. Parsis travel to Iran for pilgrimage and communicate with Iranian Zoroastrians on theological matters, and there has also been intermarriage between the Zoroastrians of Iran and India (perhaps helpful, given their limited populations in both places--perhaps 70,000 in India and 40,000 in Iran). We have been told that there has been some financial support from India to Iran (the Indian Parsis have been very successful, financially), and a Indian Parsi community exists in Yazd, Iran, a center of Iranian Zoroastrians. [Post on Zoroastrianism to come.]
****************
When I first heard about the Zoroastrian Parsis of Bombay five years ago, I was surprised to learn that there was any connection at all between Iran and India. Of course, a quick look at a map shows that Iran borders the subcontinent (a fairly long frontier with Pakistan on both sides of which live the ethnic group of the Baluchis), but Iran in my mind was in the Middle East (together with the Arab world), while Pakistan, India and the rest of the subcontinent fell under the designation South Asia.
Being in Iran has helped me recognize that the historical and cultural connections between Iran and India are far more significant than I realized, even after my visit to Hyderabad. [Visiting Pakistan, no doubt, would further make clear the many links.] For ease of discussion, I will discuss the ties between Iran and India in categories.
Ethnic. Two peoples on the Earth (not counting Nazi Germany) are noted for having foundational myths that relate back to an "Aryan" people--Iran and India. In the case of Iran, ancient texts refer to the original Iranians as Aryans, coming from the Caucasus, and the name of the country itself means "land of the Aryans." And as you may have learned in school, the basic ethnic history of India is that Aryan people entered the subcontinent from now Afghanistan, to displace and to some extent subjugate the preexisting Dravidian people, who now populate the darker-skin realms of South India.
According to these foundational legends, the Iranian and Indian peoples can be seen as brothers or cousins. And whether or not you believe these legends to be true, the physical similarity between some Iranians and Indians cannot be denied. Of course, many Indians and Iranians don't look anything like each other--if you had to choose two nations that had similar looking people, these two would not be them--but there is definitely an overlap in the physical type that wasn't apparent to me before visiting India and Iran in relatively close succession. Surprisingly many Iranians could easily pass for Indian (and vice versa, I suppose, although most people in the world are more familiar with what Indians look like than Iranians).
Historical/Linguistic. Farsi, the language spoken most widely in Iran, and northern Indian languages, such as Hindi, are the easternmost languages of the Indo-European language group and are said to comprise its "Indo-Iranian branch." This hit me off-guard when, while looking at some tiles, I was told that "green" and "vegetable" in Farsi were "sabz" and "sabzi," respectively, the latter of which I knew to the same word in Hindi from our Indian travels. No doubt there are many, many other common words given the linguistic closeness of the languages.
As I mentioned in my post of 3.28, many Muslim rulers of India, including the Mughals, were Farsi-speaking, and so Farsi was a court language in India for a fair amount of its history. These rulers came not only directly from now Iran, as the rulers of Golconda I described in my post of 3.28, but also from what may be called Greater Persia, which includes the parts of Afghanistan and Central Asia that were for much of history under the same control as now Iran and populated by people who speak Farsi or closely related languages. Until the nineteenth century, Farsi was in relatively common use in India, at least in certain circles, and many Iranians traveled to and lived in India to seek their fortunes.
Given this history, Farsi influence has great in Urdu, the language of Pakistan, which even uses, like Farsi, a modified Arabic script. I am told by an Iranian-American friend and reader of the blog that an Urdu speaker once told my friend that he could understand my friend's Farsi. If so, it must be relatively easy for a Farsi speaker to learn Urdu and vice versa.
I had learned from prior research that "biryani" (as in the Indian rice dish) was derived from the Farsi word for frying or roasting, and so got my hopes up that there would be a Persian equivalent of the dish--a sort of ur-biryani that was transported to India. Ordering a beriani in Esfahan, I received something like a fried hamburger patty, and so learned that given the extensive use of Farsi in India, there must be many things that have Farsi names but are purely from the subcontinent. [Post on Iranian food to come.]
Modern Cultural. Iranian people may to a certain extent look down on India today, and to a certain extent Iran and Iranian culture have held the position of a superior to India over history, but there are still many contemporary connections between Iran and India. Indian movies are popular in Iran, although perhaps not as popular as American movies. We've spoken to and heard of Iranians who have either studied in India or plan to study in India for its relatively low cost and high quality of education. In addition to its well-established universities, India is of course a free society and affords many opportunities to learn about the world not available in Iran.
Zoroastrians. Deserving its own category is the Zoroastrian connection. At the time of the Arab conquest of the Sassanid Empire in the seventh century, a significant population of Iranians fled Iran for India. Known as Parsis, they retain their Zoroastrian faith and form a discrete minority population in India, centered around Bombay. The Parsis of India today see themselves as Indians and not Iranians (they speak Gujarati, the language of Gujarat, India, where they first settled after leaving Iran), but maintain their historical and religious links to Iran. Parsis travel to Iran for pilgrimage and communicate with Iranian Zoroastrians on theological matters, and there has also been intermarriage between the Zoroastrians of Iran and India (perhaps helpful, given their limited populations in both places--perhaps 70,000 in India and 40,000 in Iran). We have been told that there has been some financial support from India to Iran (the Indian Parsis have been very successful, financially), and a Indian Parsi community exists in Yazd, Iran, a center of Iranian Zoroastrians. [Post on Zoroastrianism to come.]
May 11, 2008
History of Iran: Sassanids
This is part of a series of an overview of Iranian history--please refer to my post of 5.10.
***
With no clear successor to Alexander the Great following his early death, now Iran became part of a dynasty founded by one of his generals, Seleucus. Around 250 BC, the Seleucid empire was largely conquered by the Parthians (of Central Asian Turkic origin). Parthian rule of now Iran, characterized in part by a rivalry with Rome, lasted from 250 BC to 224 AD. A brief post on the Seleucids and Parthians perhaps to come.
The Sassanid dynasty was founded in 226 AD, when Ardeshir defeated the Parthian Emperor Artabanus IV.
A bas relief, showing the victory of Ardeshir over Artabanus IV. On the right is an anthropomophized Ahura Mazda, the god of Zoroastrianism, handing a ring of royal authority to Ardeshir. Under Ardeshir's horse is Artabanus, while the God of Evil lies under Ahura Mazda's horse.
Ruins of Gur, the first capital of the Sassanids, located about an hour and a half southwest of Shiraz
Ardeshir's palace. This building is notable in particular for its great domes, said to be the first to be built over a square base by use of the squinch.
Zoroastrianism became an orthodox state religion under the Sassanids, led largely by the priest Kartir, who served six different Sassanid emperors over a period of fifty years. The Sassanid Empire practiced a form of Zoroastrianism that is said to have been contaminated by Mithraism, another local faith. Also, gone was the religious tolerance of the Achaemenids--at times, violence toward those of other religions (especially Christians, who were seen as favorably disposed to the Christian Byzantine Empire) was promoted by the state. In one inscription, Kartir speaks proudly of his destruction of the temples of Jews, Buddhists, Christians, Hindus and Greeks throughout the Sassanid Empire. It has been suggested that the decline of Zoroastrianism was due in part to its close association with the Sassanid state. [Post on Zoroastrianism to come.]
A water, or Anahita, temple at the city of Bishapur. When used, the central courtyard would have been flooded along with channels that run around an interior perimeter within the walls, on the other side of the doors that are visible.
On and off for almost its entire duration, the Sassanid Empire fought with the Roman/Byzantine Empire (first based in Rome, and then Constantinople). Earlier on our trip, we visited the site of one Sassanid victory, the city of Dura Europos, described in my post of 4.24. One ally of the Romans against the Sassanids was the city-state of Palmyra, described in my post of 5.2.
In AD 256, Sassanid Emperor Shapur I captured Roman Emperor Valerian following a battle at Edessa (in now Turkey). In this bas relief, Roman Emperors Philip the Arab (kneeling) and Valerian are shown defeated by Shapur. [Philip founded Philippopolis, now Shahba, Syria, one of the "dead cities" of the Hauran.] Emperor Valerian is said to have been held captive in the city of Bishapur until his death.
The Sassanid Empire ended with the Arab (Islamic) conquest of now Iran in the seventh century. While in the ninth and tenth centuries there were smaller dynasties, especially in the eastern part of now Iran, that at times claimed independence from the Islamic Caliph, first based in Damascus and then Baghdad, the next truly great empire to incorporate all of now Iran would be the Seljuk Turks', itself followed by the coming of the Mongols.
***
With no clear successor to Alexander the Great following his early death, now Iran became part of a dynasty founded by one of his generals, Seleucus. Around 250 BC, the Seleucid empire was largely conquered by the Parthians (of Central Asian Turkic origin). Parthian rule of now Iran, characterized in part by a rivalry with Rome, lasted from 250 BC to 224 AD. A brief post on the Seleucids and Parthians perhaps to come.
The Sassanid dynasty was founded in 226 AD, when Ardeshir defeated the Parthian Emperor Artabanus IV.
A bas relief, showing the victory of Ardeshir over Artabanus IV. On the right is an anthropomophized Ahura Mazda, the god of Zoroastrianism, handing a ring of royal authority to Ardeshir. Under Ardeshir's horse is Artabanus, while the God of Evil lies under Ahura Mazda's horse.
Ruins of Gur, the first capital of the Sassanids, located about an hour and a half southwest of Shiraz
Ardeshir's palace. This building is notable in particular for its great domes, said to be the first to be built over a square base by use of the squinch.
Zoroastrianism became an orthodox state religion under the Sassanids, led largely by the priest Kartir, who served six different Sassanid emperors over a period of fifty years. The Sassanid Empire practiced a form of Zoroastrianism that is said to have been contaminated by Mithraism, another local faith. Also, gone was the religious tolerance of the Achaemenids--at times, violence toward those of other religions (especially Christians, who were seen as favorably disposed to the Christian Byzantine Empire) was promoted by the state. In one inscription, Kartir speaks proudly of his destruction of the temples of Jews, Buddhists, Christians, Hindus and Greeks throughout the Sassanid Empire. It has been suggested that the decline of Zoroastrianism was due in part to its close association with the Sassanid state. [Post on Zoroastrianism to come.]
A water, or Anahita, temple at the city of Bishapur. When used, the central courtyard would have been flooded along with channels that run around an interior perimeter within the walls, on the other side of the doors that are visible.
On and off for almost its entire duration, the Sassanid Empire fought with the Roman/Byzantine Empire (first based in Rome, and then Constantinople). Earlier on our trip, we visited the site of one Sassanid victory, the city of Dura Europos, described in my post of 4.24. One ally of the Romans against the Sassanids was the city-state of Palmyra, described in my post of 5.2.
In AD 256, Sassanid Emperor Shapur I captured Roman Emperor Valerian following a battle at Edessa (in now Turkey). In this bas relief, Roman Emperors Philip the Arab (kneeling) and Valerian are shown defeated by Shapur. [Philip founded Philippopolis, now Shahba, Syria, one of the "dead cities" of the Hauran.] Emperor Valerian is said to have been held captive in the city of Bishapur until his death.
The Sassanid Empire ended with the Arab (Islamic) conquest of now Iran in the seventh century. While in the ninth and tenth centuries there were smaller dynasties, especially in the eastern part of now Iran, that at times claimed independence from the Islamic Caliph, first based in Damascus and then Baghdad, the next truly great empire to incorporate all of now Iran would be the Seljuk Turks', itself followed by the coming of the Mongols.
May 10, 2008
History of Iran: Achaemenids
Iranian history, to many of us in the West, is something of an unknown. We know that the civilization of Iran is an ancient one, and that various Persian Empires have contested the great powers of European history, but beyond that--nothing (or worse than nothing, in the case of the recent movie "300"). In a series of posts, I hope to acquaint you with some basic information about some of the dynasties that have controlled what is now Iran over the past 2500 years, with some context to show their relevance to world history.
While it would be ideal to proceed chronologically, I will instead be working in the order of sites we visit. Fortunately, we started our trip in Shiraz, nearby some of the greatest relics of the Achaemenid and Sassanid Empires, which come fairly early in Persian history, and it is those two periods I wish to cover in this and the next post.
***
The Achaemenids came to power around 550 BC, when Cyrus the Great consolidated rule over now Iran. Cyrus was able to extend his empire as far east as Pakistan and Central Asia and as far west as Egypt and the Greek cities of Asia Minor (now Turkey). Soon after Cyrus's reign was Darius the Great's, who was in turn followed by his son Xerxes--all names familiar to Western readers as the foes of the Greeks. The Achaemenid Persian Empire was arguably the first great empire of the world, incorporating many nations in a wide stretch of the Near East.
Perhaps the greatest construction of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, and a great source of pride for Iranian people of today, was Persepolis, which lies approximately an hour from the modern city of Shiraz. Not a true city, but more a religious or festival complex, the site was constructed for the celebration of Nowruz, or the Persian New Year, which is still celebrated around the time of the Spring Equinox in Iran and Central Asia. [All of the pictures in this post are from Persepolis and nearby tombs.]
Gate of All Nations, Persepolis
A symbol of Nowruz--a lion attacking a bull
During the Nowruz celebrations, representatives of all of the nations within the Persian Empire would come to Persepolis to pay tribute to the Persian emperor. Our guide noted that the gifts brought were not necessarily the most valuable items from a given region but the items that were most locally distinctive. The procession of the nations is recorded in reliefs that have survived in near pristine condition.
Note how each delegation is led (on left), hand in hand, by a Mede or Persian--the two "home" nations of the Persian Empire.
The Lydian delegation, carrying bowls and vases
The Achaemenids were followers of Zoroastrianism, said by some to be the world's first monotheistic religion. [Post on Zoroastrianism (including its survival in modern Iran) to come.] However, the Achaemenids permitted freedom of worship within the empire, and Persians proudly state that Cyrus "invented" human rights in a famous charter known as the Cyrus Cylinder. The Achaemenid rulers called themselves Kings of Kings, and recognized that they were rulers over a multiethnic and multilingual domain.
The faravahar, a symbol of Zoroastrianism
Inscriptions at Persepolis and other Achaemenid sites are in three languages, Elamite, Neo-Babylonian and Old Persian, all written in cuneiform.
The Greeks were among the Persians' greatest foes, and the Achaemenids suffered famous defeats at Marathon in 490 BC and at Salamis in 480 BC. The Empire persisted, however, until the rise of Macedonian Alexander the Great, whose armies swept over Asia as far as now Pakistan. Alexander defeated the Persian Empire around 330 BC, commencing a period of Greek control of now Iran that lasted through around 250 BC. Persepolis was destroyed by a fire at the time of Alexander's conquest, although it is not known whether this was deliberate (as revenge for Xerxes' destruction of Athens) or accidental.
The acinaces, a dagger used by Persian soldiers. We were told that the length of these daggers was a great strategic disadvantage relative to the Greeks' longer swords. Note at the bottom the row of twelve-petaled flowers, a symbol representing the twelve months of the year that is repeated everywhere in Persepolis.
Four of the Achaemenid emperors were buried near Persepolis, at a site now called Naqst-e Rostam. The tomb on the right belongs to Darius the Great.
Detail of carvings above tomb. Note the emperor above being supported by the 28 nations of the Persian Empire while paying respect toward the faravahar and another symbol of Zoroastrianism, the fire of the fire temple.
While it would be ideal to proceed chronologically, I will instead be working in the order of sites we visit. Fortunately, we started our trip in Shiraz, nearby some of the greatest relics of the Achaemenid and Sassanid Empires, which come fairly early in Persian history, and it is those two periods I wish to cover in this and the next post.
***
The Achaemenids came to power around 550 BC, when Cyrus the Great consolidated rule over now Iran. Cyrus was able to extend his empire as far east as Pakistan and Central Asia and as far west as Egypt and the Greek cities of Asia Minor (now Turkey). Soon after Cyrus's reign was Darius the Great's, who was in turn followed by his son Xerxes--all names familiar to Western readers as the foes of the Greeks. The Achaemenid Persian Empire was arguably the first great empire of the world, incorporating many nations in a wide stretch of the Near East.
Perhaps the greatest construction of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, and a great source of pride for Iranian people of today, was Persepolis, which lies approximately an hour from the modern city of Shiraz. Not a true city, but more a religious or festival complex, the site was constructed for the celebration of Nowruz, or the Persian New Year, which is still celebrated around the time of the Spring Equinox in Iran and Central Asia. [All of the pictures in this post are from Persepolis and nearby tombs.]
Gate of All Nations, Persepolis
A symbol of Nowruz--a lion attacking a bull
During the Nowruz celebrations, representatives of all of the nations within the Persian Empire would come to Persepolis to pay tribute to the Persian emperor. Our guide noted that the gifts brought were not necessarily the most valuable items from a given region but the items that were most locally distinctive. The procession of the nations is recorded in reliefs that have survived in near pristine condition.
Note how each delegation is led (on left), hand in hand, by a Mede or Persian--the two "home" nations of the Persian Empire.
The Lydian delegation, carrying bowls and vases
The Achaemenids were followers of Zoroastrianism, said by some to be the world's first monotheistic religion. [Post on Zoroastrianism (including its survival in modern Iran) to come.] However, the Achaemenids permitted freedom of worship within the empire, and Persians proudly state that Cyrus "invented" human rights in a famous charter known as the Cyrus Cylinder. The Achaemenid rulers called themselves Kings of Kings, and recognized that they were rulers over a multiethnic and multilingual domain.
The faravahar, a symbol of Zoroastrianism
Inscriptions at Persepolis and other Achaemenid sites are in three languages, Elamite, Neo-Babylonian and Old Persian, all written in cuneiform.
The Greeks were among the Persians' greatest foes, and the Achaemenids suffered famous defeats at Marathon in 490 BC and at Salamis in 480 BC. The Empire persisted, however, until the rise of Macedonian Alexander the Great, whose armies swept over Asia as far as now Pakistan. Alexander defeated the Persian Empire around 330 BC, commencing a period of Greek control of now Iran that lasted through around 250 BC. Persepolis was destroyed by a fire at the time of Alexander's conquest, although it is not known whether this was deliberate (as revenge for Xerxes' destruction of Athens) or accidental.
The acinaces, a dagger used by Persian soldiers. We were told that the length of these daggers was a great strategic disadvantage relative to the Greeks' longer swords. Note at the bottom the row of twelve-petaled flowers, a symbol representing the twelve months of the year that is repeated everywhere in Persepolis.
Four of the Achaemenid emperors were buried near Persepolis, at a site now called Naqst-e Rostam. The tomb on the right belongs to Darius the Great.
Detail of carvings above tomb. Note the emperor above being supported by the 28 nations of the Persian Empire while paying respect toward the faravahar and another symbol of Zoroastrianism, the fire of the fire temple.
May 9, 2008
Iran: First Impressions
Having been to Syria, and then spent a few days in the Gulf, coming to Iran was certainly set up as not too great a culture shock. After all, parts of Syria are fairly conservative, religiously, and men in the Gulf uniformly wear traditional (Arab) dress, compared to the modern western (though tieless) look of Iranian men, as evidenced by Iran's president. A few thoughts captured in my first couple days on the ground, before they mature and grow stale:
- People here are just as friendly as Syrians, but speak a lot more English. This can be somewhat tricky because in some cases people are so eager to speak with us, and since they speak English it is harder to turn them down, even if we really do have something to do or some place to go (or can't really understand their English efforts). We already have had one dinner invitation that we were not able to accept, and have felt compelled to participate in somewhat strange, rather long conversations. Oh, to have such problems!
- As you may have read, Americans are required to be guided in Iran, and we had been somewhat anxious about what this aspect of our Iran trip was going to be like. Everything is going great with Pars Tourist Agency so far. But we have to change guides tomorrow (our first guide, who was excellent, was unavailable for our whole time), and so we'll see. The mandatory guide is not so cumbersome--we have evenings to ourselves and, being our own two-person group, can move at our own pace.
- The role of "traditional" dress is different here than in Syria because there are religious laws enforced against women--it is compulsory and shows. In Syria, not all women wore head scarves and those that did looked very much like they were doing so by choice (even if I imagine in many families it is expected of them). In Iran, cover is required by law (in the form of a headscarf or chador--Iranian women do not wear burkas like Arabs or Afghanis). We've seen saw a couple of women from Tehran take their scarves off when not in the presence of Iranian men, only to cover their head quickly when a man entered the room, and a lot of younger women here in liberal Shiraz wear their scarves in a manner that just barely satisfies the legal requirements (actually, likely does not), revealing half of their sometimes significant hairdo, with their highlights and occasionally heavy makeup.
- We had a conversation with a couple of young women studying at a university in Shiraz and took the opportunity to ask them some questions about women's issues. When asked whether they liked or disliked the hejab (the Islamic dress code), one answered that it didn't matter to her while the other was emphatic in her negative response, "No... I hate it." The second answer came so quickly and firmly, it was as if she had been waiting a long time to tell exactly that to someone. When asked what they believe most Iranian women think about the law, the first woman thought that they favored the law while the second thought that they resented it. When asked whether they felt that they had a wide range of career opportunities (by law, a few are not open to women), the first answered with a yes, while the second thought that her choices were severely limited. It was astonishing how different their answers were, although they were friends. A man we spoke to took a somewhat intermediate point of view, defending the dress code based on the custom of the people (and implausibly justifying it on reduction of sex crimes and harassment, as if Iranian men were totally incapable of self-control), but taking the long-term perspective that things should and will change eventually.
The "liberal" woman we spoke to went on to ask us questions about the American system, and what it was like. She asked if we were happy with the laws in the U.S. We gave her a brief summary of the principles of the First Amendment and our personal views. She was somewhat surprised to hear that we were not religious at all, but very much approved of all of the personal liberties available in America. On dressing and living as she pleases, she said, "It is my dream." One (perhaps obvious) conclusion: Whether dress is enforced socially or legally makes a big difference. In Syria, a woman (assuming she has some education and means) can choose to move to a big city and take off her veil. Here, refusing to comply with the hejab means that you will be a criminal, and potentially serve jail time with repeat offenses.
- Apostasy, or renouncing Islam, is a capital offense. You're allowed to be Christian or Jewish or Zoroastrian, but if you are a Muslim, you must remain one on penalty of death. I imagine people don't generally get executed for breaking this law (after all, unless you're out to be a martyr it's easy to pass as a faithful), but it is a stark reminder of what theocracy means.
- Finally, to show you that life goes on in Iran, despite the laws: We were walking innocently around the town of Shiraz, our first evening, and came upon a wholly unexpected experience (and honestly something we haven't encountered anywhere else)--aggressive gay cruising. Crossing across a 50 meter stretch of a public square in the middle of town, we came across three different men, with each of whom we struck up conversations, before we knew exactly what was on their minds. The first had an extremely high feminine voice (although he was like 6'2") and showed Derek a (straight) porn video that was on his mobile phone, suggesting that we walk over to his house. The second started with polite conversation and then moved quickly to repeatedly asking Derek the size of his, um, ****. Both were persistent and the latter quite explicit about what he wanted (although to be fair I guess we could have stopped it by just walking away--we were freaked out but also intensely curious at what was going on in the middle of an Iranian city since given as is infamous the penalty for gay sex in Iran is death). Passing through the same square on the way back from dinner, another man told us that he loved America and George Bush and said that George Bush was gay. All of this, happening on our first full night in Iran, was totally surreal. [A man we met elsewhere told us that a considerable percentage of people in Iran, especially the younger ones, participate in the usual vices (alcohol, nonmarital sex, pornography), albeit discreetly. Shiraz was after all famous for its wine, and people still make and consume it in private.]
- People here are just as friendly as Syrians, but speak a lot more English. This can be somewhat tricky because in some cases people are so eager to speak with us, and since they speak English it is harder to turn them down, even if we really do have something to do or some place to go (or can't really understand their English efforts). We already have had one dinner invitation that we were not able to accept, and have felt compelled to participate in somewhat strange, rather long conversations. Oh, to have such problems!
- As you may have read, Americans are required to be guided in Iran, and we had been somewhat anxious about what this aspect of our Iran trip was going to be like. Everything is going great with Pars Tourist Agency so far. But we have to change guides tomorrow (our first guide, who was excellent, was unavailable for our whole time), and so we'll see. The mandatory guide is not so cumbersome--we have evenings to ourselves and, being our own two-person group, can move at our own pace.
- The role of "traditional" dress is different here than in Syria because there are religious laws enforced against women--it is compulsory and shows. In Syria, not all women wore head scarves and those that did looked very much like they were doing so by choice (even if I imagine in many families it is expected of them). In Iran, cover is required by law (in the form of a headscarf or chador--Iranian women do not wear burkas like Arabs or Afghanis). We've seen saw a couple of women from Tehran take their scarves off when not in the presence of Iranian men, only to cover their head quickly when a man entered the room, and a lot of younger women here in liberal Shiraz wear their scarves in a manner that just barely satisfies the legal requirements (actually, likely does not), revealing half of their sometimes significant hairdo, with their highlights and occasionally heavy makeup.
- We had a conversation with a couple of young women studying at a university in Shiraz and took the opportunity to ask them some questions about women's issues. When asked whether they liked or disliked the hejab (the Islamic dress code), one answered that it didn't matter to her while the other was emphatic in her negative response, "No... I hate it." The second answer came so quickly and firmly, it was as if she had been waiting a long time to tell exactly that to someone. When asked what they believe most Iranian women think about the law, the first woman thought that they favored the law while the second thought that they resented it. When asked whether they felt that they had a wide range of career opportunities (by law, a few are not open to women), the first answered with a yes, while the second thought that her choices were severely limited. It was astonishing how different their answers were, although they were friends. A man we spoke to took a somewhat intermediate point of view, defending the dress code based on the custom of the people (and implausibly justifying it on reduction of sex crimes and harassment, as if Iranian men were totally incapable of self-control), but taking the long-term perspective that things should and will change eventually.
The "liberal" woman we spoke to went on to ask us questions about the American system, and what it was like. She asked if we were happy with the laws in the U.S. We gave her a brief summary of the principles of the First Amendment and our personal views. She was somewhat surprised to hear that we were not religious at all, but very much approved of all of the personal liberties available in America. On dressing and living as she pleases, she said, "It is my dream." One (perhaps obvious) conclusion: Whether dress is enforced socially or legally makes a big difference. In Syria, a woman (assuming she has some education and means) can choose to move to a big city and take off her veil. Here, refusing to comply with the hejab means that you will be a criminal, and potentially serve jail time with repeat offenses.
- Apostasy, or renouncing Islam, is a capital offense. You're allowed to be Christian or Jewish or Zoroastrian, but if you are a Muslim, you must remain one on penalty of death. I imagine people don't generally get executed for breaking this law (after all, unless you're out to be a martyr it's easy to pass as a faithful), but it is a stark reminder of what theocracy means.
- Finally, to show you that life goes on in Iran, despite the laws: We were walking innocently around the town of Shiraz, our first evening, and came upon a wholly unexpected experience (and honestly something we haven't encountered anywhere else)--aggressive gay cruising. Crossing across a 50 meter stretch of a public square in the middle of town, we came across three different men, with each of whom we struck up conversations, before we knew exactly what was on their minds. The first had an extremely high feminine voice (although he was like 6'2") and showed Derek a (straight) porn video that was on his mobile phone, suggesting that we walk over to his house. The second started with polite conversation and then moved quickly to repeatedly asking Derek the size of his, um, ****. Both were persistent and the latter quite explicit about what he wanted (although to be fair I guess we could have stopped it by just walking away--we were freaked out but also intensely curious at what was going on in the middle of an Iranian city since given as is infamous the penalty for gay sex in Iran is death). Passing through the same square on the way back from dinner, another man told us that he loved America and George Bush and said that George Bush was gay. All of this, happening on our first full night in Iran, was totally surreal. [A man we met elsewhere told us that a considerable percentage of people in Iran, especially the younger ones, participate in the usual vices (alcohol, nonmarital sex, pornography), albeit discreetly. Shiraz was after all famous for its wine, and people still make and consume it in private.]
May 7, 2008
The Gulf
We've been to most of the countries in the Gulf region now--Oman, UAE, Bahrain and Kuwait, although not Qatar and Saudi Arabia--and seen them in relatively quick succession.
Some thoughts:
- Each country has in the second part of the twentieth century experienced an unprecedented windfall in the way of oil revenues and used them to build itself up into a modern (even ultra-modern) nation, from, relatively speaking, the desert backwater that presumably each was fifty years ago. (Oman's an outlier--a bit more below.)
- To see the Gulf states properly, you need a car. Car rentals can be very affordable, and of course gas is cheap. Traffic around Dubai is some of the worst we've experienced. The Gulf states all have modern roads, and are building many more at a rapid pace. They seem to love roundabouts, like some countries in Europe, and hate overpasses. Roundabouts do offer some opportunity for U-turns, but the lack of overpasses means that you're often stuck going in the wrong direction (especially if you're a tourist who doesn't know directions and makes a wrong turn), for what can be a seemingly endless desert block. Build some overpasses!
- The Gulf is more traditional than many other corners of the world. Men almost uniformly wear traditional dress (dishdasha and keffiyeh (or embroidered hat in the case of Oman)) and women are largley dressed in full black robes, and often burqas. Gender distinctions are great. In some countries, such as Oman, it's actually somewhat uncommon (outside malls) to see women at all--they just don't participate to a full extent in public life. Even restaurants are segregated--men-only seating and "family" seating for mixed gender groups. In Saudi Arabia, as in Iran, many rules are enshrined in law; I believe that in all the other countries, it is more a matter of custom.
- It's not quite clear how religious the people in the Gulf are--given the high education levels it would not be surprisingly to find a fairly secular society underneath it all--but the locals are uniformly Muslim on paper. The Gulf is not Syria or Iraq, or even Iran, which have historically seen the movement of many peoples and faiths, with various minority groups as historical remnants. (Oman is a bit of an exception ethnically in that there are black Omanis--see below.)
- The most striking thing about the Gulf is the number of non-Arabs who live and work there (as much as 90% of the population, in Dubai). Of course, these people come from various backgrounds, from wealthy Westerners who are compensated very well for coming to work so far from home, to South Asians who in what must be desperation to find work take jobs that offer often horrible working conditions and do not pay very well to boot (most famously in the construction industry, but elsewhere as well). The phenomenon of millions of people traveling thousands of miles in search of work is one that deserves a separate post, which I hope to put together at a later date.
Perhaps a bit surprising is how the countries differ from one another. The Gulf was ruled by various tribal leaders, most of whom in the twentieth century developed quasi-colonial relationships with the United Kingdom and then formed separate nation-states. The UAE, even today, is a federation of seven sheikdoms. Despite what must have been fairly similar histories (with the exception of Oman), the Gulf states have become somewhat distinct in the recent past. Some country-specific thoughts:
- Most famously, Dubai has become a center of commerce. With relatively limited oil reserves, Dubai has successfully leveraged its commercial history and location to become, truly, the hub city of the Middle East. It is home to the region's biggest and best airline (Emirates) and the world's most ambitious building projects (such as the manmade islands of the Palms and the World and the world's tallest building, the Burj Dubai). I have been told by Arabs that, outside of Lebanon and Egypt, which are the centers of the Arab music and film industries, respectively, Dubai is the center of Arab media and popular culture, as well as technology.
- Bahrain is fairly multicultural. From what we understand, Bahraini law allows overseas workers to gain residence/citizenship more easily than other Gulf countries (in some it is simply not possible no matter how long one stays), and so Bahrain has longer-term non-Arab residents. We saw a Christian church (largely for the Filipino population) in downtown Bahrain, and there are good whole-in-the-wall type Thai restaurants as well. Even the Arab Bahrainis have a slightly more exotic look, perhaps from Bahrain's long history as a port. Bahrain is known for banking, but is also trying to attract tourists, with free-flowing alcohol and a Formula One racetrack. A bit depressingly, Bahrain seems to be a center of prostitution, with Saudis driving over in new SUVs by the hundreds (Bahrain is an island, but a very long causeway connects it to Saudi Arabia) to drink and fornicate. Central Bahrain is filled with cheapish hotels featuring all kinds of evening entertainment.
- Kuwait, as described in a recent New York Times article, does not seem to be experiencing a great boom in investment as other parts of the Gulf, and parts of its downtown lie in ruins (still from the 1990-91 war??). It is of course just as rich or richer than its neighbors, but for whatever reason its general economy seems to be stagnating. Overseas workers we spoke to in Kuwait said that it is a horrible place to work, one woman saying that risk of sexual harassment/rape was ever present, including from the police. She explained further that her 12 year old son was in the Philippines and unwilling to return to Kuwait saying, "What I am going to do there? It is like a prison". We also heard that other Gulf Arabs think ill of Kuwait. Although Kuwait started offering tourist visas recently, basic efforts to develop tourism seem lacking--the windows of the landmark Kuwait Towers are dirty, and ruins are visible nearby. One interesting, arguably more positive point: We are told that Kuwaiti society relaxed considerably after the war--one overseas worker mentioned that he thought it would be like Saudi Arabia when he first came, and was pleasantly surprised to find that standards of dress and behavior are surprisingly liberal.
- Oman still feels like a backwater compared to the other countries, although Oman most of all has a history of contact with the rest of the world, including especially in the nineteenth century, when it had a sort of small empire, including the island of Zanzibar. From its African history, Oman has a local black population, who seem to be totally integrated into Omani society. There are relatively fewer overseas workers in Oman, and one sees more locals holding regular jobs. Oman seems to be very well governed by its Sultan, and in our travels we have found Omanis uncommonly warm and gentle, with class and charm at times lacking in some of the other Gulf countries.
Some thoughts:
- Each country has in the second part of the twentieth century experienced an unprecedented windfall in the way of oil revenues and used them to build itself up into a modern (even ultra-modern) nation, from, relatively speaking, the desert backwater that presumably each was fifty years ago. (Oman's an outlier--a bit more below.)
- To see the Gulf states properly, you need a car. Car rentals can be very affordable, and of course gas is cheap. Traffic around Dubai is some of the worst we've experienced. The Gulf states all have modern roads, and are building many more at a rapid pace. They seem to love roundabouts, like some countries in Europe, and hate overpasses. Roundabouts do offer some opportunity for U-turns, but the lack of overpasses means that you're often stuck going in the wrong direction (especially if you're a tourist who doesn't know directions and makes a wrong turn), for what can be a seemingly endless desert block. Build some overpasses!
- The Gulf is more traditional than many other corners of the world. Men almost uniformly wear traditional dress (dishdasha and keffiyeh (or embroidered hat in the case of Oman)) and women are largley dressed in full black robes, and often burqas. Gender distinctions are great. In some countries, such as Oman, it's actually somewhat uncommon (outside malls) to see women at all--they just don't participate to a full extent in public life. Even restaurants are segregated--men-only seating and "family" seating for mixed gender groups. In Saudi Arabia, as in Iran, many rules are enshrined in law; I believe that in all the other countries, it is more a matter of custom.
- It's not quite clear how religious the people in the Gulf are--given the high education levels it would not be surprisingly to find a fairly secular society underneath it all--but the locals are uniformly Muslim on paper. The Gulf is not Syria or Iraq, or even Iran, which have historically seen the movement of many peoples and faiths, with various minority groups as historical remnants. (Oman is a bit of an exception ethnically in that there are black Omanis--see below.)
- The most striking thing about the Gulf is the number of non-Arabs who live and work there (as much as 90% of the population, in Dubai). Of course, these people come from various backgrounds, from wealthy Westerners who are compensated very well for coming to work so far from home, to South Asians who in what must be desperation to find work take jobs that offer often horrible working conditions and do not pay very well to boot (most famously in the construction industry, but elsewhere as well). The phenomenon of millions of people traveling thousands of miles in search of work is one that deserves a separate post, which I hope to put together at a later date.
Perhaps a bit surprising is how the countries differ from one another. The Gulf was ruled by various tribal leaders, most of whom in the twentieth century developed quasi-colonial relationships with the United Kingdom and then formed separate nation-states. The UAE, even today, is a federation of seven sheikdoms. Despite what must have been fairly similar histories (with the exception of Oman), the Gulf states have become somewhat distinct in the recent past. Some country-specific thoughts:
- Most famously, Dubai has become a center of commerce. With relatively limited oil reserves, Dubai has successfully leveraged its commercial history and location to become, truly, the hub city of the Middle East. It is home to the region's biggest and best airline (Emirates) and the world's most ambitious building projects (such as the manmade islands of the Palms and the World and the world's tallest building, the Burj Dubai). I have been told by Arabs that, outside of Lebanon and Egypt, which are the centers of the Arab music and film industries, respectively, Dubai is the center of Arab media and popular culture, as well as technology.
- Bahrain is fairly multicultural. From what we understand, Bahraini law allows overseas workers to gain residence/citizenship more easily than other Gulf countries (in some it is simply not possible no matter how long one stays), and so Bahrain has longer-term non-Arab residents. We saw a Christian church (largely for the Filipino population) in downtown Bahrain, and there are good whole-in-the-wall type Thai restaurants as well. Even the Arab Bahrainis have a slightly more exotic look, perhaps from Bahrain's long history as a port. Bahrain is known for banking, but is also trying to attract tourists, with free-flowing alcohol and a Formula One racetrack. A bit depressingly, Bahrain seems to be a center of prostitution, with Saudis driving over in new SUVs by the hundreds (Bahrain is an island, but a very long causeway connects it to Saudi Arabia) to drink and fornicate. Central Bahrain is filled with cheapish hotels featuring all kinds of evening entertainment.
- Kuwait, as described in a recent New York Times article, does not seem to be experiencing a great boom in investment as other parts of the Gulf, and parts of its downtown lie in ruins (still from the 1990-91 war??). It is of course just as rich or richer than its neighbors, but for whatever reason its general economy seems to be stagnating. Overseas workers we spoke to in Kuwait said that it is a horrible place to work, one woman saying that risk of sexual harassment/rape was ever present, including from the police. She explained further that her 12 year old son was in the Philippines and unwilling to return to Kuwait saying, "What I am going to do there? It is like a prison". We also heard that other Gulf Arabs think ill of Kuwait. Although Kuwait started offering tourist visas recently, basic efforts to develop tourism seem lacking--the windows of the landmark Kuwait Towers are dirty, and ruins are visible nearby. One interesting, arguably more positive point: We are told that Kuwaiti society relaxed considerably after the war--one overseas worker mentioned that he thought it would be like Saudi Arabia when he first came, and was pleasantly surprised to find that standards of dress and behavior are surprisingly liberal.
- Oman still feels like a backwater compared to the other countries, although Oman most of all has a history of contact with the rest of the world, including especially in the nineteenth century, when it had a sort of small empire, including the island of Zanzibar. From its African history, Oman has a local black population, who seem to be totally integrated into Omani society. There are relatively fewer overseas workers in Oman, and one sees more locals holding regular jobs. Oman seems to be very well governed by its Sultan, and in our travels we have found Omanis uncommonly warm and gentle, with class and charm at times lacking in some of the other Gulf countries.
May 4, 2008
Personality Cults
In the most common pose, outside Hamidiyya Souk in Old Damascus
More full post to come, time permitting, but I thought I would share with you some of the many portraits of Bashar and Hafez al-Assad (respectively, the current present and his deceased father and predecessor) that are all over Syria. Some of these, in public places, are clearly put there by the administration, but many (such as Bashar portraits in many shops and one Bashar family portrait we saw in a car) seem spontaneous and personal. One cynic told us that Syrians would wear underwear with Assad on it. All of the Syrians we spoke with on the subject seemed genuinely to like the Assads, even if they did not have warm feelings for the Syrian government overall. And, if you think about Syria as a monarchy, somehow it's less strange that so many pictures of the leader would be plastered all over the place.
I think there is a focus on the persons of the Assads in Syria in large part because Syria as a state, like most others in the Middle East, is a creation of the West (in Syria's case, Britain and France drew its boundaries). Without a discrete, unifying history or culture to distinguish itself from its neighbors, a country needs to define itself in other ways, and one of those is by a strong leader.
Father, in sight of the historic Hejaz railway station, Damascus
Son, at Lattakia railway station
At the Lebanese border
With Nasrallah of Hezbollah and Ahmedinejad of Iran, advertising a fast food shop in Old Damascus
More full post to come, time permitting, but I thought I would share with you some of the many portraits of Bashar and Hafez al-Assad (respectively, the current present and his deceased father and predecessor) that are all over Syria. Some of these, in public places, are clearly put there by the administration, but many (such as Bashar portraits in many shops and one Bashar family portrait we saw in a car) seem spontaneous and personal. One cynic told us that Syrians would wear underwear with Assad on it. All of the Syrians we spoke with on the subject seemed genuinely to like the Assads, even if they did not have warm feelings for the Syrian government overall. And, if you think about Syria as a monarchy, somehow it's less strange that so many pictures of the leader would be plastered all over the place.
I think there is a focus on the persons of the Assads in Syria in large part because Syria as a state, like most others in the Middle East, is a creation of the West (in Syria's case, Britain and France drew its boundaries). Without a discrete, unifying history or culture to distinguish itself from its neighbors, a country needs to define itself in other ways, and one of those is by a strong leader.
Father, in sight of the historic Hejaz railway station, Damascus
Son, at Lattakia railway station
At the Lebanese border
With Nasrallah of Hezbollah and Ahmedinejad of Iran, advertising a fast food shop in Old Damascus
May 3, 2008
Golan Heights
Another interesting thing about traveling is seeing places, right before you in person, that you've heard about, either in books or on the news. Today, we went to the Roman-era ruin of Umm Qais/Gerada. The ruins themselves are not particularly compelling relative to other sites in the region and unlikely to impress, but the hill in Jordan on which they are located has a good view of Golan Heights, rising over the Sea of Galilee.
The Sea of Galilee (of biblical fame) is located entirely in Israel, but the Golan Heights rising above it on the east is technically a part of Syria, although it was captured by Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967. In 1981, it was formally annexed by Israel, and the disputed territory would be a key point in any peace negotiations between Israel and Syria. There isn't much in the Golan Heights, but Israel considers them a high ground over its own territory that is important to its security. [We recall having a conversation with a Chinese woman who argued that Tibet was essential to China for the same reason--topography still matters.]
May 2, 2008
A Syria Itinerary
We love Syria. There is so much to see, the people are incredibly friendly, food is good, it is safe and everything is quite affordable. In all, we would say it is one of our favorite travel destinations so far. So let's say you're coming to Syria for a couple weeks (and you should). Here's how you could spend your time.
1 - Damascus
2 - Damascus
3 - Damascus
4 - daytrip to Baalbek, Lebanon (not Syria, I know--be sure to have a re-entry visa)
5 - get an early start and travel to Apamea; sleep at Krak des Chevaliers (Hotel Baibars--what a view!)
6 - tour Krak; travel to Aleppo (a few hours)
7 - Aleppo
8 - choose: 1) Dead Cities (Jeradeh, Dana, Bara and Serjilla) or 2) St. Simeon and Deir Samaan
9 - Aleppo
10 - travel to Palmyra (much of day), catch sunset
11 - Palmyra
12 - travel to Damascus (a few hours)
13 - daytrip to Shahba and Bosra
14 - Damascus
1 - Damascus
2 - Damascus
3 - Damascus
4 - daytrip to Baalbek, Lebanon (not Syria, I know--be sure to have a re-entry visa)
5 - get an early start and travel to Apamea; sleep at Krak des Chevaliers (Hotel Baibars--what a view!)
6 - tour Krak; travel to Aleppo (a few hours)
7 - Aleppo
8 - choose: 1) Dead Cities (Jeradeh, Dana, Bara and Serjilla) or 2) St. Simeon and Deir Samaan
9 - Aleppo
10 - travel to Palmyra (much of day), catch sunset
11 - Palmyra
12 - travel to Damascus (a few hours)
13 - daytrip to Shahba and Bosra
14 - Damascus
Roman Ruins
More full post to come, time permitting, but the most interesting thing to me, perhaps, about the greatest Roman-era ruins that we visited in Syria and Lebanon, Apamea, Palmyra, Baalbek and Bosra, aside perhaps from the sheer impressiveness of Baalbek, is how, while the structures date primarily from Roman imperial times, the cities represent so many different ethnicities and cultures, not only in the people who must have lived or worshipped there but in the traditions that are represented in the art and architecture. These places are Roman, yes, in that they were from the Roman period and primarily in the Roman style, but certainly not Roman in many other senses.
Apamea
Apamea was founded by the Seleucids (heirs to Alexander the Great) in the 3rd century BC. The Romans conquered in 64 BC and the city was largely rebuilt after an earthquake in 115. Apamea remained an important city in Byzantine times, until it was sacked by the Persians in the sixth and seventh centuries, and then taken by the Arabs.
Unusual columns, reminiscent of baroque! Note the pedestals for the placement of statues, an unclassical feature.
Syrian Roman-era cities are noted for their long collonaded streets, of which Apamea's is perhaps the most impressive.
Inscription in Greek, the primary language of the eastern Roman Empire.
Mosaic from Apamea, showing Socrates
Going back to my Scams post of 3.13, a favorite around ruins all over the world--a man who sells "ancient" coins
Note the ruts in the Roman street
Palmyra
Palmyra was an important oasis as long ago as the third millennium BC, and was partially integrated into the Roman Empire in the first century AD. Rising to great prosperity as a stop in the trade between the Mediterranean and the East (India, China, etc.), Palmyra played a role in Rome's campaigns against Sassanian Persia in the 3rd century AD. Recognizing Palmyra's importance, and with newfound strength, then Queen Zenobia began to challenge the Roman Empire itself and was defeated in 274, when she was taken to Rome. Palmyra was won by the Arabs in the seventh century.
Overview of the site, from nearby Arab-era castle. Note the collonaded streets. The Temple of Bel is in the upper left corner.
Temple of Bel. Bel is a Semitic god, and the temple structure is similar to Semitic traditions going back to the temple at Amrit (cf. post of 4.15).
Inside the cella, or central shrine, at the Temple of Bel
Funerary towers, also within the Semitic tradition
Typical Palmyrene funerary busts. The style derives from the Hellenistic, following the conquest of the area by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC.
Bilingual inscription in Palmyrene (related to Aramaic) and Greek. Most inscriptions in Palmyra are bilingual or in Palmyrene only.
Baalbek (Heliopolis)
Baalbek was the site of a Phoenician temple to Baal, the Sun God, as early as 2000 BC. In Roman times, Baal was worshipped at Baalbek/Heliopolis as Heliopolitan Jupiter, and great constructions were added in the first century by the Roman Emperors.
The great court, in the tradition of other Semitic temples
Note on lower right the Latin inscription to Heliopolitan Jupiter
Look at the size of those stones!
The astonishing Temple of Bacchus
Temple of Bacchus detail, looking up
Inside the cella of the Temple of Bacchus
Snows of Lebanon
Bosra
Bosra, a city occupied since ancient times, was in the latter part of the first century AD the capital of the Nabataean kingdom (most famous for Petra), until ruled directly by Rome beginning in the second century. It is most famous for its second century theater, but also is said by legend to have been traveled by Mohammed, who met with a Nestorian Christian monk who educated Mohammed on Christianity and recognized Mohammed as a prophet.
Bosra's Nabatean Arch
No camels in Italy!
Theater in full
Apamea
Apamea was founded by the Seleucids (heirs to Alexander the Great) in the 3rd century BC. The Romans conquered in 64 BC and the city was largely rebuilt after an earthquake in 115. Apamea remained an important city in Byzantine times, until it was sacked by the Persians in the sixth and seventh centuries, and then taken by the Arabs.
Unusual columns, reminiscent of baroque! Note the pedestals for the placement of statues, an unclassical feature.
Syrian Roman-era cities are noted for their long collonaded streets, of which Apamea's is perhaps the most impressive.
Inscription in Greek, the primary language of the eastern Roman Empire.
Mosaic from Apamea, showing Socrates
Going back to my Scams post of 3.13, a favorite around ruins all over the world--a man who sells "ancient" coins
Note the ruts in the Roman street
Palmyra
Palmyra was an important oasis as long ago as the third millennium BC, and was partially integrated into the Roman Empire in the first century AD. Rising to great prosperity as a stop in the trade between the Mediterranean and the East (India, China, etc.), Palmyra played a role in Rome's campaigns against Sassanian Persia in the 3rd century AD. Recognizing Palmyra's importance, and with newfound strength, then Queen Zenobia began to challenge the Roman Empire itself and was defeated in 274, when she was taken to Rome. Palmyra was won by the Arabs in the seventh century.
Overview of the site, from nearby Arab-era castle. Note the collonaded streets. The Temple of Bel is in the upper left corner.
Temple of Bel. Bel is a Semitic god, and the temple structure is similar to Semitic traditions going back to the temple at Amrit (cf. post of 4.15).
Inside the cella, or central shrine, at the Temple of Bel
Funerary towers, also within the Semitic tradition
Typical Palmyrene funerary busts. The style derives from the Hellenistic, following the conquest of the area by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC.
Bilingual inscription in Palmyrene (related to Aramaic) and Greek. Most inscriptions in Palmyra are bilingual or in Palmyrene only.
Baalbek (Heliopolis)
Baalbek was the site of a Phoenician temple to Baal, the Sun God, as early as 2000 BC. In Roman times, Baal was worshipped at Baalbek/Heliopolis as Heliopolitan Jupiter, and great constructions were added in the first century by the Roman Emperors.
The great court, in the tradition of other Semitic temples
Note on lower right the Latin inscription to Heliopolitan Jupiter
Look at the size of those stones!
The astonishing Temple of Bacchus
Temple of Bacchus detail, looking up
Inside the cella of the Temple of Bacchus
Snows of Lebanon
Bosra
Bosra, a city occupied since ancient times, was in the latter part of the first century AD the capital of the Nabataean kingdom (most famous for Petra), until ruled directly by Rome beginning in the second century. It is most famous for its second century theater, but also is said by legend to have been traveled by Mohammed, who met with a Nestorian Christian monk who educated Mohammed on Christianity and recognized Mohammed as a prophet.
Bosra's Nabatean Arch
No camels in Italy!
Theater in full
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